Author: AABMS

The Association of Applied BioMedical Sciences (AABMS) is a professional organization promoting both research and education in biomedical and allied sciences.

Research proposal and its different components. A guide to writing the research report

It is conventional for students doing research for a degree to first submit an overview or research proposal to the faculty for approval. The research adviser evaluates the value of the proposed study and talks with the student about the appropriateness of the chosen topic and the suggested study design. The faculty’s review aids in elucidating the students’ thoughts regarding the appropriateness of the problem chosen and the suggested technique. Additionally, the student saves a significant amount of time and effort by not having to spend it on a poorly constructed study that would have been rejected.

Though there is some variation in the format prescribed by different universities, the following information is most often required about the research proposal:

• Statement of the problem.
• Purpose, objective, and significance of the study.
• Definitions, assumptions, and limitations.
• Review of related literature.
• Theoretical framework.
• Hypotheses and questions.
• Proposed research procedures.
• Time schedule.

The aforementioned topics will be covered in detail in the upcoming parts, giving you the confidence to create a research proposal.

As you may remember, research is done when the intended goal appears to be tough to achieve. Research in this area is required as the existing testing method is only recognized for promoting memorization and does not assist in identifying potential. Conversely, because the family planning program is not assisting in slowing down the pace of population increase, a study on family planning practices and current attitudes towards different family planning devices must be done. The application of research to real-world issues is what makes it so valuable. Research should be appropriately conveyed to field people for it to be useful.

Read: Analysis of reforms in Pakistani secondary education curriculum: research proposal

The basic purpose of the research report is to communicate to others in the field, complete and accurate information about what was done, how it was done, and what results were obtained.

How to Write the Research Report: A Guide

The writing of the research report should be undertaken after all the data have been collected and analyzed, and the conclusions based on these data have been drawn and firmly established. The researcher should follow the outline that he submitted for the approval of his adviser/thesis committee. However, the preliminary research outline should only serve as a guide. Sometimes changes are introduced in the course of conducting a research study because the preliminary tryout may indicate that certain methods should be abandoned and new ones introduced. The research report should reflect what was done. The research report should describe as clearly, directly, and briefly as possible exactly how the research was conducted, how the data were collected, and how the conclusions were drawn.

Clarity is the best quality of a study report. Experience has proven that removing any superfluous, pointless, and unnecessary information from the report may help it become more clear. The writer should not disrespect the intellect of the people for whom the research reports are made or waste his time, since they are all familiar with the fundamentals of the subject and have a basic understanding of the background information. If the writer feels that a certain amount of basic background information is necessary, he should only mention it very briefly.

There should be thorough documentation in the research report. This implies that every assertion should have its source cited. Please note that the following claims do not require supporting documentation.
• claims that are regarded as fundamental presumptions, such as the following: using audio-visual aids enhances teaching-learning environments, production is required for the development of human resources, and education investments provide greater rates of return.
• statements based on firsthand observation, such as the inability of primary school pupils to remain still for extended periods, the reluctance of women to discuss their age relative to that of males, the tendency of eastern mothers to be overly protective of their children, etc.

Standard Format of the Research Report

There are several excellent and appropriate methods to deliver a research report in writing; there is no one right approach. However, some types of information must always be provided. Because of this, the reports’ formats are essentially the same.
The fresh information collected from the research investigation forms the fundamental basis of the research report. However, the research report has to make it very apparent what the issue was and how it was investigated to demonstrate that this new information is pertinent and useful. Therefore, there are three main sections in every study report, which are as follows:

1) The introductory explanation

2) The presentation of the data collected and its analysis

3) A summary of the general conclusions.

Documentation may be included in the text itself or the form of footnotes. Regardless of the format, the source from which the statement was derived as well as the author to whom credit is due must be mentioned. If the assertion came from a written, published source, it should be stated with the publication’s title, publisher’s name, and year of release. Documentation should be used to provide credit to the expert who provided the view.

Read: The significance of samples in research. Discuss various sampling techniques

Nature and Background of the Study

A research report should begin with an introduction that covers the purpose and context of the study as well as setting the scene for the main body of work. The study’s justification is given in this section. The primary subjects that need to be covered in this section are.

A. Statement of the problem:

The problem statement should be concise and direct. Just describe the study’s purpose and topic matter at this point. No rationale for doing the study has to be given. Giving a clear image of the study’s topic and the framework it will be done inside should be the goal.

B. Reasons for doing the research:

Here, the researcher has to explain why the study was carried out. A reader should be able to comprehend the challenges and barriers encountered in the field that made the study necessary after reading this subsection.

C. Review of related literature:

The researcher should acknowledge what was already understood about the issue before beginning his investigation. Any gaps in prior information may be highlighted, and shortcomings in the approaches used by earlier researchers may be identified. In a sense, the evaluation of relevant literature would provide his findings even more support. It is not necessary to attempt to present a review of every piece of literature that is currently accessible on the subject. Reviewing previous research should only include information that is pertinent to the components of the issue that the study addresses.

D. Further elaboration of the problem:

This subsection addresses topics such as problem delimitation, subproblems, hypotheses taken into consideration during research project development, etc.

F. General hypothesis:

At this point, the researcher ought to outline the hypothesis he intends to investigate. As such, the introductory chapter needs to set the reader up for the primary study and its conclusions. As previously said, if a chapter gets too long, it could be divided into two or more chapters. The division of the chapter is what explains the surface variations across various report formats.

Read: Observation types and record-keeping methods

Approach to Data Analysis and Presentation

This section of the research report constitutes the essential core. It is here that actual research is described in de’tails4nd the basic data collected are presented.

A. Actual steps followed in the course of the research:

If feasible, the researcher should provide enough data about his process so that other researchers might recreate the work if they so want.

B. Tools employed in data collection:

Every tool used in the research for collecting data—tests, surveys, forms, etc.—should be explained. The Appendix after the text should provide an example of each of these instruments. It should also be made clear why each of these tools was utilized and what stage of the study it was used for:

C. Validity and reliability of instruments:

The validity and reliability of the instruments employed determine the level of trust that can be put in the study findings. The researcher must furnish sufficient details on the validity and reliability of the instruments employed. If instrument pit testing was done, specifics about the findings must be provided.

D. Population and sample studied:

Information should be provided about the population studied and how the sample was drawn – characteristics of the sample – should be provided.

E. Summarizing the collected evidence:

Here, the researcher should provide the information obtained through charts, graphs, tables, and other visual aids. Analysis and interpretation of the data are necessary. Tables that summarise the essential facts for understanding the interpretation should be included in the text, whereas comprehensive tables go in the appendix. The data presentation ought to be organized by the subproblems and sub-hypotheses.

F. Summary of the findings

For the convenience of the reader, a summary of data and their interpretation should be presented towards the end of this chapter and point out what has been revealed by the data.

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PhD positions in Food Web Ecophysiology at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology

The Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, or Eawag, is a globally connected aquatic research organization housed inside the Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology (ETH Domain). Eawag works to fulfill the immediate demands of people for water while also preserving the integrity and functionality of aquatic ecosystems via research, teaching, and professional advice.
Two PhD spots in Food Web Ecophysiology (m/f/d) are available in the Department of Fish Ecology and Evolution (FishEc).

The Food Web Ecophysiology group will investigate the effects of global warming on the phenology (seasonality), biomass, and nutritional quality of aquatic-to-terrestrial insect subsidies, as well as their evolutionary ecology. This project’s ultimate objective is to forecast how changes in the nutritional environment brought about by climate change may endanger terrestrial consumers who depend on aquatic insect subsidies, such as bats, spiders, and birds.

Read: The Professor of Astrodynamics position at the Technical University of Munich (TUM)

The goals of the PhD projects

The PhD projects aim to comprehend the following: 1) intraspecific variation in aquatic insect phenology, biomass, and nutritional content along thermal gradients; and 2) how the species composition of aquatic insects along thermal gradients influences subsidy timing, magnitude, and nutritional content. To gather phenological data, extensive seasonal fieldwork will be carried out along elevational thermal gradients in Central Switzerland, as well as either an Icelandic geothermal gradient or an urban heat island gradient in Belgium. We will be able to comprehend finer-scale intraspecific variation caused by temperature and food quality through captive-rearing research. Prospective PhD candidates are encouraged to find out more about the project’s broad objectives at https://cornelia-twining.squarespace.com/nutriphenol. 

Students will be housed within the Department of Fish Ecology and Evolution (FishEc), located on the shores of Lake Lucerne in Kastanienbaum, Switzerland, and will receive degrees from ETH Zürich in the Department of Environmental Systems Science (USYS).

Necessary qualifications

The ideal applicant will possess the following requirements: the ability to work both independently and collaboratively in a small team; self-motivation in learning new skills and subjects; and a resilient, growth-based mentality. Additionally, it would be ideal if you have some past wet lab experience and are at ease working independently in the lab. You also require a strong background in data analysis and communication. English is used as the departmental and lab working language.

Being a contemporary employer, Eawag provides a great work atmosphere where employees can share their knowledge, skills, and perspectives. We are dedicated to the diversity and inclusion of our team and we support gender equality. We place a great deal of significance on the harmony between family and profession.

For more information about Eawag and our work conditions please consult www.eawag.ch and www.eawag.ch/en/aboutus/working/employment.

Evaluation of applications

Applications will be reviewed beginning on March 1, 2024, and will continue until the post is filled. Although the commencement date is negotiable, it should ideally start on September 1, 2024. A letter of motivation, CV, the names and email addresses of two references, and a PDF with an example of typical scientific writing (such as a class final report, thesis, manuscript draft, or published work) should all be included with your application.

For questions, please email Dr Lily Twining. 

The Professor of Astrodynamics position at the Technical University of Munich (TUM)

Technical University of Munich (TUM): W2 Tenure Track Assistant Professor (with tenure track to W3) or W3 Associate/Full Professor; to begin as soon as possible.

Responsibilities

The professorship will be given to the Technical University of Munich (TUM) School of Engineering and Design’s Department of Aerospace and Geodesy. Together with mentoring early-career scientists, the duties also involve research and teaching. The position of expert in the field of astrodynamics research is sought, with a focus on the study and development of astrodynamics fundamentals, interplanetary navigation, satellite operations, and spacecraft trajectory design and optimization for cutting-edge mission concepts like Earth observation, satellite communications, and space exploration. Courses at the university’s bachelor’s and master’s programs are part of the teaching duties.

Qualifications

Regarding the appropriate career level, we are seeking applicants who have shown outstanding accomplishments in research and teaching in a globally renowned scientific setting (for more details, visit www.tum.de/en/faculty-recruiting-faq/). Prerequisites include a bachelor’s degree, an exceptional Ph.D. degree, or an equivalent scientific competence, along with instructional aptitude. Significant overseas research experience is required.

Read: Full-Funded Food Security and the Environment (FSE) Postdoctoral Fellowship at Stanford University in the United States 2024

What We Offer

TUM provides tenure track professors with a merit-based academic career path that progresses from Assistant Professor to Associate Professor, a permanent post, and finally Full Professor based on the highest international standards and open performance criteria. The TUM Faculty Recruitment and Career System’s rules are relevant here. TUM offers top-notch working circumstances within a vibrant scientific community that is integrated into the Greater Munich Area’s thriving research environment. TUM provides social benefits and pay conditions that are both appealing and performance-based. Partners of recently appointed academics can get customized career counseling from the TUM Munich Dual Career Office (MDCO). New professors, their partners, and any accompanying family members get assistance with relocation and integration from the MDCO.

Technical University of Munich (TUM) Application

TUM expressly welcomes applications from women and is an equal-opportunity employer. People with disabilities can apply for this role. When it comes to generally similar eligibility, aptitude, and professional performance, candidates with disabilities will be given precedence. The TUM application standards for professors should be followed while submitting application materials. Visit www.tum.de/faculty-recruiting for more information on the TUM Faculty Recruitment and Career System, including these guidelines. TUM’s policies on the gathering and use of personal data during the application process are also available here.

Kindly submit your application through the TUM recruiting site at www.recruit.tum.de before April 2, 2024.

Apply on Website

Analysis of reforms in Pakistani secondary education curriculum: research proposal

Introduction

Everyone is aware of the value of education. In the modern world, it is essential to a country’s existence. Education shapes countries and shapes their future. Because of this, we need to utilize our education policies wisely, since they will determine our future. Islam also taught us the value of education and its significance in life. “To know Allah” is the true purpose of education in Islam, yet I believe that we have genuinely lost our way as a nation. Our children are not taught about this in our madrassas or Islamic Education Centres. We merely get ready to give them “Money” at school.

Problem Statement

There are several Islamic scholars who, with the aid of the Holy Quran, possess knowledge in a wide range of fields, including physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, and many more. I believe the existing educational system is confining them rather than broadening our children’s horizons. Our kids are incredibly gifted; all they need is the proper guidance and environment to become the next Quaid-e-Azam, Allama Iqbal, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Alberoni, Abnalhasam, Einstein, Newton, or Thomas Edison. Our current educational system is no longer functional. We must figure out how to reduce the distance between the madrassa and the school. It is “the ultimate goal of education for young people to teach themselves throughout their lives,” according to Robert Maynard Hutchins. We need to provide our kids with a means of self-education. “Education is a better protection for freedom than the military,” declared Edward Everett. Regretfully, Pakistan allocates more funds to our weaponry than to education that fulfills our educational mission!

Read: The significance of samples in research. Discuss various sampling techniques

Objectives

Our instruction goes beyond only getting students ready for the “Financial Machine.” What is the reason for putting our children in a prestigious, large school when we are adding more books to their already heavy workload? Is it purely social? However, at our madrassas, we are preparing for those who struggle greatly to fit into contemporary society. There are moments when they appear to be extraterrestrial. A student at a madrassa cannot compete, not even in our nation where the planet is so far away. Even talking to a schoolboy is quite tough for her. While it is true that contemporary education is required for everyone to compete in this world, it is equally evident that Muslims must get an Islamic education.

Methodology

Let’s talk about our policymakers now; it appears that they are not working hard enough. The government reviews the education policy each year, but the outcomes remain the same. A new survey indicates that Pakistan’s rate of illiteracy is on the rise. Someone establishing “Parha Likha Punjab,” “Nai Roshni School,” etc. What is Pakistan supposed to teach? Well, in my opinion, no. For the past 60 years, these “People” have been manipulating our country purely out of greed and desire. As we correctly educate our children, should we also be thinking about their education? What shall we do if not? Work must be done immediately, or it will be too late in Pakistan!

Preliminary Literature Review

The principal conclusions and suggestions of the study are Pakistan has the second greatest number of unenrolled students in the world—millions—despite the country’s law requiring all children between the ages of five and sixteen to get a free, obligatory education. The public education system continues to offer inadequate education to meet the needs of the constantly expanding labor market, and the curriculum is faulty, encouraging xenophobia and prejudice towards other religions. In addition to contributing to religious fanaticism and sectarian bloodshed, poorly run madrasas and religious institutions replaced the defunct community education system.

After decades of neglect, the state has to act quickly to increase funding for low-income education programs, make sure that foreign help in this area increases rather than decreases the state’s financial commitment, and make wise changes to curricula, bureaucracy, instructors, and methodologies.

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The significance of samples in research. Discuss various sampling techniques

The quest for universally applicable principles is the main goal of research. The majority of studies apply treatments to a limited subset of the population and gather data for analysis and conclusion-making. There are several pragmatic reasons for doing this. Certain populations can be so big that it would be prohibitively costly and time-consuming to quantify their features. When dealing with extremely huge populations—such as all Pakistani primary school students or all automobiles registered in the nation—the process of gathering data may take so long that, by the time the researcher finishes his investigation, the population may have changed. If such were the case, the findings from the research would not apply to the altered population, whose makeup may have been impacted by a higher percentage of new enrollees and a smaller percentage of repeaters and dropouts.

In certain situations, it might seem possible to gather information by conducting an exhaustive census of the entire population, but in the majority of other cases, sampling would allow one to draw reliable conclusions or generalizations from the data gathered from a small percentage of the population. The sample size’s sufficiency determines how accurately we can make these Quake generalizations or inferences. The researcher is not the only one who uses sampling extensively. Everybody uses sampling in their daily lives. We remove one or two peanuts from the seller, remove the shell to check whether the nuts seem healthy, and then taste the peanuts to determine if they have been cooked to our satisfaction. We depart if the quality of the contents of these sampled peanuts does not meet our standards.

Likewise, our perceptions of organizations and people are frequently shaped by snippets of our interactions with them. We might not always make purposeful attempts to get high-quality samples, thus the conclusions we make in daily life based on samples may not always be accurate. Conversely, the researcher uses the following sampling strategies to create samples:

• randomly selected;
• representative;
• sufficiently large; and
• controlled for extraneous variables.

Read: Classification of tests: the validity and reliability of tests as research tools

Type of Samples

Non-probability and probability are the two fundamental categories of samples. What separates the two is primarily that in the former case, it is impossible to calculate the likelihood that every person has an equal chance of joining the sample. To clarify the distinction, consider the example that follows. Let’s say a researcher visits elementary school principals to gather information from those that allow the headmasters to provide their pupils for study purposes. He visits many schools, gathering information until he reaches his 250-point goal. This one is an illustration of a non-probability sample. In contrast, g gathers a comprehensive list of all class V students enrolled in schools, writes each student’s name on a separate slip, places all the slips in a drum or container, and then draws 250 slips, one at a time, after repeatedly rotating or shaking the container. This allows him to create a probability sample. Because each student has an equal chance of being included in the sample, this is known as a probability sample.

Non-probability sampling

The majority of social science research uses non-probability-type samples. Subjects are typically used when they are easily accessible to the researcher. For instance, a researcher may enroll in two distinct courses if they are interested in comparing two distinct pedagogical approaches. We refer to these samples as inadvertent or accidental samples. Entering a sizable department shop, an investigator may sample the prices of necessities by taking note of the costs of every item on offer. Incidental or inadvertent samples are used by a drug examiner who is gathering samples of medications accessible in a large pharmacy.

Quotation sampling is another kind of non-probability sampling. Using this procedure, the proportions of the population’s different subgroups are first discovered, and the sample is then selected to have the same percentages (typically not in a random manner). For instance, a researcher examining the mathematical prowess of high school students includes both males and females in the fraction of students known to be enrolled in high schools. Comparably, a researcher may take into account the proportion of urban and rural instructors in the population when examining the attitudes of high school teachers about the removal of the ban on student unions.

Purposive sampling is the third kind of non-probability sampling in research. A sample that is purposefully chosen is chosen at random because there is strong evidence supporting its high level of population representation. Given that the candidate with the highest number of votes in the Islamabad Capital Territory’s rural regions has historically won the National Assembly seat, anybody attempting to forecast the outcome of the next election from this constituency may choose to sample solely the voters’ preferences in this area. Alternatively, if one is aware that the Faisalabad wholesale market has historically mirrored national trends, one may use the trend in cotton prices there alone to forecast the trend in cotton prices for all other markets in the nation.

Probability sampling

A planned and systematic process of selecting samples from the population so that every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample is known as probability sampling. For instance, if a sample of two students is to be taken from a class of ten students (S1. S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9, S10), one can create five pairs of students so that each student appears only once in a pair. Five pairs can be combined in a wide variety of ways, and any pair can be chosen.

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Classification of tests: the validity and reliability of tests as research tools

According to Carrington (1994), a test is a sample of responses, conduct, goods, or performances from a certain domain.
Similar to scales and inventories, tests are tools for evaluation (The New Standards for Psychological and Educational Testing, published in 1999).
A device used to collect a sample of a person’s behaviors. (Yun and Allen, 1979).
Test scores will forecast performance levels; when needed, the student will figure out how to put the pieces back together in relevant contexts. Cann, 2000).

Classification of tests:

These evaluation tools have been divided into several categories. You may classify people into the following two broad categories as a fundamental starting point:

a. What the person can accomplish (his talents); and

b. What the person will do (his distinctive behavior revealing his personality).

A few descriptive categories based on the instrument’s purpose or function are listed below.

a. Achievement tests:

Achievement tests, often referred to as proficiency exams, provide information on an individual’s knowledge base, level of accomplishment, and ability to solve issues and do tasks. These exams are designed to gauge a person’s current performance level and level of mastery in a subject or skill as a result of receiving training. These assessments gauge aptitude in a particular subject, such as maths, reading, spelling, or typing. Performance is measured in several areas by certain accomplishment batteries.

Achievement tests can be used, among other things, to determine a person’s strengths and weaknesses and to assess the impact of a course of study, teachers, and other educational resources. These tests can also be used to compare two teaching methods, courses of study, textbooks, etc., and to determine which groups are equivalent to serve as control and experimental groups. They can also be used to measure the progress made by the experimental and control groups by administering the test before and after the treatment.

b. Aptitude tests:

The purpose of aptitude tests is to evaluate an individual’s potential for success in a given academic or professional domain. Put differently, aptitude exams aim to forecast a person’s potential for achieving higher performance with further instruction. It was precisely because accomplishment tests were determined to be reliable indicators of academic performance that the earlier academic aptitude tests were developed. To determine a person’s potential for future growth given the required training, aptitude tests examine an individual’s current performance, including performance in certain areas where they have not received particular instruction. The mechanical, motor coordination, artistic, and aptitude for medicine, engineering, computers, languages, stenography, and other fields may all be measured with aptitude tests.

Scores on various talents are obtained via aptitude tests. These assessments give a thorough picture of a person’s general strengths and limitations or ability profile. After receiving the required training, this profile may be compared against the profiles of people who have succeeded in a variety of occupations to identify the field or fields in which he has the highest chance of success.

c. Personality tests:

A vast subset of psychological testing focuses on the non-cognitive facets of human activity. Most frequently, personality tests are used to examine these kinds of traits and viewpoints. The majority of these assessments are typically self-reporting tools. The person examines his answers to specific questions on his behavior patterns and preferred course of action in various scenarios. These instruments could not be very useful since it is hard, impossible, or unfeasible for people to precisely or impartially describe their own emotions. Two major categories may be used to group personality assessments.

i) Personality questionnaires:

In recent years self-report instruments have come to be used for personality assessment. One of the methods used in the construction of personality questionnaires is to make up a very large number of questions and then to determine by experimental studies which items discriminate between normal persons and groups of individuals known to deviate from the normal.

ii) Projective technique

In recent years, psychologists have focused a lot of emphasis on a novel method of personality assessment. The reason the new techniques are dubbed “projective” is that they allow subjects to project their traits onto how they would react to an ambiguous, hazy scenario. This method is predicated on the idea that, when a person is liberated from societal norms, he is more likely to be authentic and see the world in his unique light. The circumstances are deliberately left open-ended so that he is less able to falsify his sincere answers to appear favorable.

Read: Observation types and record-keeping methods

Reliability

If the same result is obtained from a test several times, it is considered reliable. The consistency of the respondents’ scores on subsequent tests is referred to as the test’s reliability. A test’s reliability may be assessed in three different ways.

(1) A large number of people may take a test, have it retaken, and then calculate the coefficient of correlation between the test and retest results.

(2) A large-scale test with many items may be given only once, but each participant may receive two scores—one for even-numbered things and another for odd-numbered items.

The reliability of the test might be determined by calculating the coefficient of correlation between these two scores. The test may be developed in many formats since prior familiarity with one form may render a retake unfair. To determine the reliability coefficient, subject scores on the two forms may be connected.

Validity

The validity of a test is determined by how well it truly measures the objectives it was designed to evaluate. There must be an independent standard for the characteristic being tested to establish test validity. For instance, the results of pupils’ most recent school exams in English might serve as criteria for certifying an English proficiency test. The results of a student’s first exam after starting college, which is a scholastic aptitude test, might also be utilized as the standard. Test validity is the degree of connection that exists between test results and criteria scores. In conclusion, the user should confirm for themselves before utilizing a test that:

The test is valid and sufficiently trustworthy, it has been standardized on a subject group similar to the one he intends to employ, it has been created to assess what he wants to measure, and it has high validity.

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Observation types and record-keeping methods

Observation as a research method has to be methodical, narrowly focused and well-documented with a clear goal in mind. It needs to go through the standard processes of validity, reliability, and accuracy tests like any other research technique. The observer has to be aware of exactly what to watch out for and notice. The validity and reliability of observations are enhanced when the same observer makes them frequently.

Observations may be direct or indirect, scheduled or unscheduled, and known or unknown. A more normal view of activity may be observed from unknown, unscheduled, indirect observations such as through a one-way-vision glass. People are known to have committed minor crimes to get a true picture of prison conditions.

Read: Resorcinol uses, mechanism of action, and side effects

Methods of Recording Observations

Several tools have become widely employed to help in the recording of data gathered through observation. These tools aid in the researcher’s ability to concentrate on certain occurrences, make precise and impartial observations, and organize the data-gathering process.

a. Check-list:

Comprising a pre-made list of objects, the checklist is the most basic gadget. You can select “Yes” or “No” to indicate if the items are there, or you can enter the relevant phrase or number to indicate the kind and quantity of things. Observation recording is made easier and more systematic using this straightforward “laundry list” kind of gadget, which also ensures that significant details about the item or behavior being observed are taken into account.

b. Rating scale:

A rating scale is used for qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a thing or traits of a person. In this device, the aspects of the thing or the traits of a person are rated on a five or seven-point scale from the highest to the lowest.

c. Scorecard:

The scorecard, which shares some similarities with the rating scale and cheek list, often allows for the evaluation of a sizable number of factors. Furthermore, each feature or element has a preset point value associated with its existence or rating. As a result, a total weighted score based on the scorecard rating may be obtained and applied to the object’s evaluation. Score ratings are widely employed in assessments of schools, communities, construction projects, and textbooks. It is occasionally employed in the process of determining a school’s overall rating.

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Resorcinol uses, mechanism of action, and side effects

Resorcinol is used to treat a variety of skin conditions, including psoriasis, eczema, acne, and seborrhoeic dermatitis. Additionally, warts, calluses, and corns are treated with it.

Resorcinol works by aiding in the removal of roughened, scaly, or hard skin. Certain of these preparations may only be obtained with a prescription from your physician.

For resorcinol, the following uses should be considered:

Allergies

If you have ever experienced an unusual or adverse reaction to resorcinol or any other medication, let your doctor know. Inform your healthcare provider about any additional allergies you may have, including those to foods, colors, preservatives, or animals. Carefully review the contents listed on the label or container of non-prescription products.

Pediatric

It is not advisable to apply résorcinol over significant parts of an infant’s or child’s body since it may be absorbed through the skin. Furthermore, you should avoid applying resorcinol to wounds as this might result in methemoglobinemia, a blood disorder.

Geriatric

Numerous medications have not been properly tested in elderly individuals. Consequently, it could not be known if they function in younger individuals in precisely the same way. Resorcinol is not anticipated to create different side effects or issues in older individuals than in younger persons, despite the lack of precise data comparing usage of the drug with use in other age groups.

Interactions with Medicines

In some situations, two different medications may be used together even when there is a chance of an interaction, even though some medications should never be used together. In certain instances, your physician might wish to adjust the dosage or suggest taking other safety measures. Any additional prescription or over-the-counter (OTC) medication that you use should be disclosed to your healthcare provider.

Interactions with Alcohol, Tobacco, and Food

Since interactions between some medications and food may occur, some medications shouldn’t be taken right before or right after eating particular foods. Interactions between alcohol and tobacco usage and several medications are also possible. Talk to your doctor about using your medication with food, drink, or smoke.

Read: Environmental Fate, Exposure Potential, and Applications of Resorcinol

Mechanism of action

There doesn’t seem to be much information in the literature about the precise mechanisms of action of resorcinol. However, resorcinol’s propensity for protein precipitation appears to be the source of the agent’s usefulness in treating a variety of topical, and dermatological disorders via eliciting antibacterial and keratolytic activities. Resorcinol’s capacity to precipitate cutaneous proteins from the treated skin appears to be the main factor behind its indication for treating acne, dermatitis, or eczema in different topical treatments and peels for skin care.

Side effects of résorcinol

If you have any of the following symptoms of an allergic reaction, get emergency medical attention: hives; breathing problems; swelling in your lips, tongue, or neck.
When resorcinol is administered correctly to the skin, the risk of major side effects is minimal; nevertheless, if the medicine is absorbed through the skin and into the bloodstream, certain adverse symptoms may manifest. If you have any of the following symptoms, which might indicate that resorcinol has been absorbed via the skin:

  • slow heart rate;
  • dizziness, drowsiness, or weakness;
  • feeling short of breath;
  • severe or ongoing headache;
  • nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, diarrhea; or
  • feeling restless or nervous.

Less serious side effects may include:

  • mild skin irritation;
  • skin redness; or
  • peeling.

Medications that impact resorcinol

Do not use other medicated skin products unless your doctor has told you to, especially:

  • benzoyl peroxide (Oxy 10, Fostex, Clearskin, Benzagel, Benzamycin, BenzaClin, ZoDerm, and many others);
  • salicylic acid (Dermarest, Sebucare, StriDex, Inova, Oxy Face Scrub, and many others);
  • sulfur (Acnotex, NuOx, Sulfoxyl, Sulfo-Lac, Sulforcin, Fostril, and many others; or
  • tretinoin (Renova, Retin-A, Altinac, Tretin-X, and others).

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Environmental Fate, Exposure Potential, and Applications of Resorcinol

Resorcinol (or resorcin) is a dihydroxy benzene. It is the 1,3-isomer of benzenediol with the formula C6H4(OH)2. The key component of an adhesive system used in producing tyres and other mechanical items made of rubber reinforced with fibers is resorcinol. Resorcinol-formaldehyde resin-based adhesives or phenol-modified resorcinol-formaldehyde resin-based adhesives meet the requirements for room-temperature curing, structural integrity, and waterproof properties in wood bonding applications. In producing specialized chemicals, such as light screening agents that shield polymers from UV radiation, resorcinol is a crucial chemical intermediary. Resorcinol is used to produce agricultural chemicals, flame retardants, dyestuffs, antioxidants, urethane elastomer chain extenders, explosive primers, and treatments to increase the mechanical and chemical resilience of textiles used in paper machines.

An overview of resorcinol

The structure of the dihydroxybenzene molecule has three isomeric compounds, each with a traditional name. Catechol is the ortho (1,2) isomer that forms clear crystals and is used as a starting material to synthesize synthetic catecholamines, which have important physiological effects as neurotransmitters and hormones (epinephrine, adrenaline, dopamine, and norepinephrine). It is also known by the names catechin, pyrocatechol, and pyrocatechuic acid. The resorcinol, or resorcin, is the meta (1,3) isomer that crystallizes into transparent needles that are utilized to make diazo dyes and plasticizers. It is made by combining fuming sulfuric acid with benzene to sulfonate it, then adding caustic soda to the resultant benzene sulfonic acid.

Resorcinol is a UV absorber found in resins. It is employed in the production of adhesives and fluorescent and leather dyes. Resorcinol formaldehyde resins, which are used to manufacture nylon and rayon, are produced by reacting with formaldehyde. As a pharmaceutical, it is used in conjunction with sulfur and other acne therapies to treat oily skin problems and acne. It is a component of shampoo and sunscreen cosmetics that fights dandruff. In addition, it serves as a chemical intermediary in the manufacture of various organic molecules and medications. Hydroquinone, also referred to as quinol, is the para (1,4) isomer that produces transparent prisms that are employed as a developer and reducer in photography (apart from color film). It is created when benzoquinone is chemically reduced in high amounts. This substance functions as an antioxidant, stabilizer, inhibitor, and intermediary in general. Hydroquinone is widely used as an intermediary in the synthesis of several compounds used in agriculture, dyes, stabilizers, inhibitors, and antioxidants. UV absorbers in resins are made of resorcinol and its derivatives. They are employed in the production of adhesives (resorcinol formaldehyde resins) and fluorescent and leather dyes. As medicines, they are used in conjunction with sulfur and other acne therapies to treat oily skin problems and acne. They are a component of shampoo and sunscreen cosmetics that prevent dandruff.

Production of resorcinol

The production process involves either melting a variety of resins, such as galbanum, asafoetida, etc., with potassium hydroxide or distilling Brazilwood extract. It may be made synthetically by melting phenol-3-sulfonic acid, benzene-1,3-sulfonic acid, or 3-iodophenol with potassium carbonate; it can also be made by nitrous acid reacting with 3-aminophenol or 1,3-diaminobenzene. When potassium hydroxide is fused with several ortho- and para-compounds from the aromatic family, such as the bromophenols and benzene-para-sulfonic acid, resorcinol is also produced.

The synthesis of resorcinol involves sulfonating benzene in a way that encourages disubstitution in the meta position, then fusing it with anhydrous caustic. Resorcinol is the end product, which is refined under controlled circumstances to provide a technical-grade product that is usually 99.8 percent pure. For industries like medicines and cosmetics where ultra-high purity is necessary, INDSPEC also provides a U.S.P. grade of resorcinol that complies with US Pharmacopoeia.

Read: Heavy metal pollution of road dust: Why Street investigation is important?

Environmental fate and exposure potential

Resorcinol may be released into the environment through a variety of waste streams as a result of its manufacture and usage in the rubber industry, tanning, and the production of resins, resin adhesives, chemical intermediates, and colors. Resorcinol can only exist as a vapor in the surrounding environment if it is discharged into the air, as indicated by its vapor pressure of 4.9X10-4 mm Hg at 25 degrees Celsius. The half-life of the reaction between vapor-phase resorcinol and photochemically generated hydroxyl radicals in the environment is predicted to be 1.9 hours. Although the rate of this reaction is unknown, the vapor-phase reaction of resorcinol with nitrate radicals may also be a significant atmospheric removal mechanism in metropolitan areas at night. Resorcinol is anticipated to have a high mobility when released into soil. A Henry’s Law constant of 9.9X10-11 atm-cu m/mole is used to indicate that volatilization from damp soil surfaces is not likely to be a significant fate process.

An essential environmental destiny mechanism for resorcinol is anticipated to be biodegradation. In an aerobic screening test, resorcinol’s half-life varied from 0.16 to 0.24 days using activated sludge. In contrast, complete degradation of resorcinol happened in 8 days (as indicated by a 100% UV absorbancy loss) in a mineral salt medium utilizing a silt loam soil inocula. Presumably, resorcinol’s predicted Koc will prevent it from attaching to silt and suspended particles if it is discharged into water. Based on the anticipated Henry’s Law constant of this molecule, volatilization from water surfaces is not considered to be a significant fate process. A BCF value of 2 indicates that there is little chance of bioconcentration in aquatic creatures. Due to a deficiency of hydrolyzable functional groups, hydrolysis is not anticipated to constitute a significant environmental destiny process. Resorcinol exposure at work can happen through skin contact at locations where the substance is generated or used as a chemical intermediary in the production of other compounds. The usage of consumer goods like some hair dyes that can contain this ingredient could expose the general public.

Applications of resorcinol

Resorcinol is a UV absorber found in resins. Resorcinol formaldehyde resins, which are used to make fluorescent and leather dyes and adhesives, are made with it. As a pharmaceutical, it is used in conjunction with sulfur and other acne therapies to treat oily skin problems and acne. It is a component of shampoo and sunscreen cosmetics that fights dandruff. In addition, it serves as a chemical intermediary in the manufacture of various organic molecules and medications. One of the parent substances of topical keratolytic agents is résorcinol.

Medical applications

It is an antiseptic and disinfectant used topically, and it is used 5–10% in ointments to treat chronic skin conditions such as hidradenitis suppurativa, psoriasis, and sub-acute eczema. It can be found in concentrations of 2% or less in over-the-counter topical acne treatments and at greater concentrations in prescription therapies. For erythematous eczema, resorcinol solutions that are weak and watery (25 to 35 g/kg) work well to relieve itching. Spraying a 2% solution is effective in treating whooping cough and hay fever. 0.6 mL of the 2% solution has been administered intravenously for the latter ailment. It can be added to shampoo or sunscreen cosmetics as an anti-dandruff ingredient. Its analgesic and hemostatic properties have led to its use in the treatment of stomach ulcers at dosages ranging from 125 to 250 mg in tablet form. It is poisonous in high dosages, producing convulsions, perspiration, salivation, deafness, and giddiness. Additionally, it is incorporated into certain medicated soaps. The compound monoacetylresorcinol, C6H4(OH)(O-COCH3), is marketed as euresol. One of the active components of medications like Resinol, Vagisil, and Clearasil is resorcinol.

Chemical applications

Resorcinol is also used as a chemical intermediate for the synthesis of pharmaceuticals and other organic compounds. It is used in the production of diazo dyes and plasticizers and as a UV absorber in resins. An emerging use of resorcinol is as a template molecule in supramolecular chemistry. The -OH groups on resorcinol form hydrogen bonds to target molecules, holding them in the proper orientation for a reaction. Many such reactions can be carried out in the solid state, thereby reducing or eliminating the use of solvents that may be harmful to the environment. Resorcinol is an analytical reagent for the qualitative determination of ketoses (Seliwanoff’s test). Resorcinol is the starting material for resorcinarene molecules and the initiating explosive lead styphnate. Resorcinol reacts with formaldehyde to form a thermoset resin which can form the basis of an aerogel. Resorcinol reacts with formaldehyde to form a thermoset resin which can form the basis of an aerogel.

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Interview and its various types. The main steps in the conduct of an interview

Interview

A conversation or discussion between an applicant and a possible employer is called an interview. This selection procedure is intended to assist an employer in assessing a candidate’s abilities, evaluating their character and personality, and verifying their topic expertise. During this official interview, the company probes the candidate to learn more about them. Interviews often take place in the last stages of the hiring process and assist businesses in choosing an appropriate applicant for a position. In an interview, you can inquire about the work duties, but the interviewer may question you about their expected income.

Types of Interviews

There are many types of interviews. Some of them are (a) individual and group interviews; (b) structured or standardized interviews; (c) unstructured or unstandardized interviews (d) non-directive depth interviews; and (e) focussed interviews, and they have been discussed below.

a. Individual and group interviews:

The majority of interviews are conducted in a discreet setting, with one topic at a time, to allow the subject to openly and honestly express himself. Occasionally, people with similar or different experiences are brought together to discuss an issue or assess the merits of a proposal. They can offer a variety of perspectives and a broad range of information. They can also support one another in remembering, confirming, or correcting facts. Participants may choose not to bring up certain topics in front of the group that they may discuss in a private interview.

b. Structured ‘or standardized interviews:

The format, order, and wording of the questions are predetermined for the standardized interviews. That implies that each subject receives the same questions in the same format and sequence, and the options for possible replies are limited to a preset list. The introduction and conclusion are also presented methodically. There may be very limited leeway in the questions an interviewer may ask. This liberty is pre-specified. Standardized interviews employ meticulously prepared interview schedules (questionnaires) to gather data relevant to the study question. Because of the restrictions that are introduced by the standardized technique, which allows for generalization, a structured interview is more scientific than an unstructured one.

c. Unstructured and unstandardized interviews:

Open-ended, unstructured interviews are far more adaptable. Although the questions are dictated by the study goals, the interviewers have complete control over their substance, order, and language, and they can modify them to fit the needs of the participants and the circumstances. At times, subjects are encouraged to openly share their opinions. An informal, unstructured interview allows one to probe past first responses, investigate surprising hints, and refocus the question based on new information that emerges and leads to a more insightful data analysis. Unstructured interviews are useful tools in the exploratory phase of research, but they are not often utilized for testing and validating ideas. Insight into social interaction and human motivation may also be gained, allowing him to develop useful theories.

d. Non-directive depth interview:

There is another term for a non-directive depth interview: an unguided interview. It has an almost analytical quality, making it the best approach at times to gain an understanding of unspoken attitudes, hidden or underlying motivations, the interconnectedness of reactions, and individual desires, anxieties, and conflicts. To get precise information, an interviewer allows the subject to speak freely and in-depth about a certain topic, incident, or relationship rather than bombarding them with a series of straight or prearranged questions. The interviewer acts as an attentive listener while the subject tells his tale, gently introducing “remarks” that he finds fascinating or encouraging him to “go on” or do other actions to encourage the conversations. As the interviewee is about to conclude, the interviewer could follow up with a few pointed questions to wrap up the conversation. Through the conversation, the interviewer can elicit a natural and representative picture of the subject’s conduct and obtain insight into the type and intensity of his attitudes, intentions, feelings, and beliefs by putting minimal constraints on the path of the topic and encouraging a wide variety of replies.

e. Focussed interview:

It draws emphasis to a specific event the interviewee has had. For instance, he attempts to find out the precise details of the experience—such as whether he watched a movie or read a book—that he has experienced. To delve deeper into the subject’s mindset and feelings, the interviewer studies the film or book in-depth before meeting him, formulates pertinent questions that will act as a guide for the conversation, and keeps the topic of discussion focused on these important matters during the interview. Although the interviewer guides the conversation, the respondent is free to fully express himself.

Read: Uses and Limitations of Questionnaire. How is it different from Opinionnaire

Conduct of an Interview

To remove ambiguity and poorly worded questions, the interviewer must get training and have the questions pretested and amended. The interviewer’s prejudice must be removed with extra care, and questions must be examined for any hidden biases. Ultimately, the use of interviews must depend on the specific research question and the type of data being sought.
The steps involved have been outlined below:

a. Preparation for the interviews:

An interview can only provide the intended outcome if the required pre-work has been completed beforehand. The type of information the interviewer is looking for must be clearly defined. He has to plan out the most effective question sequences in detail and consider an engaging manner that will consistently elicit the required answers from the subject. A prepared schedule, checklist, or outline will give the interview a clear direction and guarantee that the interviewer will get all pertinent information during the conversation.

b. Establishing rapport:

The intimate nature of the relationship that exists between you, the interviewer, and the interviewee calls for a level of skill and tact that could almost be considered an art. Gaining the interviewee’s trust and cooperation is an important first step. Having a cordial conversation with the interviewee on something they are interested in will frequently allay any anger or distrust. Like with questionnaires, you as the interviewer need to be able to reassure the subject (interviewee) that his answers will be treated with the utmost confidentiality.

c. Recording interview:

It is quite easy and affordable to record interviews on tape, which eliminates the need for writing during the interview. Both the interviewer and the applicant may find writing during the interview to be distracting. Tape-recorded interviews can be viewed again for a thorough and impartial review. The recordings capture not just the words but also the respondent’s emotional effect and voice tone.

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