Category: Curriclum Development

Taxonomy of question types: Questions that effectively engage students at different cognitive levels

In education, asking questions is essential because it fosters critical thinking, motivates students to participate actively, and evaluates their comprehension. Different question styles that address different cognitive levels and domains must be used by educators to successfully engage pupils and encourage deeper learning. Classifying and comprehending the various stages of thinking and the objectives of questions is made easier with the help of a taxonomy of question kinds. To improve teachers’ questioning skills, we will examine a taxonomy of question kinds in this article and create five questions for each category.

Multiple approaches to classifying questions exist in the education literature. Questions are divided into four quadrants with matched criteria in the taxonomy below: Both high- and low-order questions are possible, and their designs can be either divergent or convergent.

A high-order question demands students to recollect information while demonstrating their understanding of the topic, circumstance, or solution to a given problem. In contrast, a low-order question only asks students to recall one item. Students answering a high-order question will need to comprehend how a fact or piece of information relates to the larger context of the scenario.

Read: Various measures to improve your critical thinking skills in the workplace

The descriptor convergent describes the constraints imposed on a particular question’s response. By definition, the right response to a convergent inquiry is more limited; it is often brief, necessitates minimal thought, and needs the respondent to recollect certain factual details from memory. Convergent questions, often known as “closed-ended” questions, are ones in which the teacher expects a predetermined response from the student that calls for minimal original thought. When answering convergent questions, pupils won’t need to come up with a unique response. That is to say, the response will have been given in the context of the instructor’s required readings or lectures.

A divergent question, however, is inherently open-ended. To answer a divergent question, a student must be able to recollect certain facts from memory while also using those facts and other knowledge to further analyze, explain, or extrapolate a topic, circumstance, or issue. Divergent questions are more general, might have more than one solution, and demand a greater degree of thought from the learner.

Knowledge-Based Questions

Knowledge-based questions evaluate students’ fundamental retention and comprehension of factual data. Usually, these inquiries ask students to recall or regurgitate particular facts, definitions, or ideas. They concentrate on remembering and comprehending, which are at the lowest levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. Five knowledge-based question examples are as follows:

  1. Define photosynthesis.
  2. What is the capital city of France?
  3. Name three properties of acids.
  4. What are the main branches of the U.S. government?
  5. Explain the concept of supply and demand.

Read: Commonwealth Split-site Scholarships in the United Kingdom, 2025

Comprehension-Based Questions

Students’ capacity to analyze and exhibit knowledge of the material they have learned is evaluated through comprehension-based questions. Students must think more deeply and go beyond mere recollection to answer these questions. Concepts are frequently summarized, paraphrased, and explained in comprehension questions. Five instances of comprehension-based questions are as follows:

  1. How would you summarize the main idea of the passage?
  2. Explain the process of osmosis in your own words.
  3. What evidence from the text supports the author’s argument?
  4. Describe the cause-and-effect relationship between two historical events.
  5. How do the protagonist’s actions contribute to the development of the plot?

Application-Based Questions

Application-based questions evaluate how well students use their knowledge and comprehension to address issues or situations in real life. Students must apply what they have learned to novel contexts, evaluate data, and draw connections between ideas to answer these questions. Five instances of application-based inquiries are as follows:

  1. Given a budget of $500, plan a week-long trip to a foreign country, including accommodation, transportation, and sightseeing.
  2. How would you use the scientific method to experiment on the effect of temperature on plant growth?
  3. Design a sustainable solution to reduce plastic waste in your school.
  4. Analyze a historical event and discuss its relevance to current political issues.
  5. Create a persuasive argument for or against a controversial social issue.

Analysis-Based Questions

Analysis-based questions evaluate students’ capacity to dissect intricate data into its component elements and look for connections, trends, or causes and effects. Students must use critical thinking skills to answer these questions, assess the evidence, and make inferences from their study. Five instances of queries that are based on analysis are as follows:

  1. What are the main factors contributing to climate change, and how do they interact with one another?
  2. Analyze a work of art, discussing the artist’s use of color, composition, and symbolism.
  3. Compare and contrast two historical figures in terms of their impact on society.
  4. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of a scientific experiment’s methodology.
  5. Critically analyze the ethical implications of a controversial technological advancement.

Read: New research suggests that Venus may never have hosted oceans on its surface

Evaluation-Based Questions

Evaluation-based questions test students’ capacity for judgment, evaluating the worth or quality of an item, and presenting evidence to back up their claims. Students are prompted by these questions to exercise critical thinking, weigh opposing views, and support their positions. Five instances of inquiries that are evaluation-based are as follows:

  1. Argue whether social media has a positive or negative impact on society, providing evidence to support your stance.
  2. Assess the effectiveness of a government policy in addressing a social issue.
  3. Evaluate the reliability and credibility of an online source of information.
  4. Debate the ethical considerations of a medical procedure, weighing the potential benefits and risks.
  5. Critique a literary work, discussing its strengths and weaknesses in terms of character development, plot structure, and thematic coherence.

Conclusion

Teachers may create and present engaging questions that appeal to students of different cognitive levels in an organized manner by using a taxonomy of question kinds. Through the integration of many question types into their teaching methodologies, educators may foster critical thinking, deeper learning, and significant evaluation. Knowledge-based, comprehension-based, application-based, analysis-based, and evaluation-based questions provide a variety of cognitive demands and enable the investigation of many facets of students’ comprehension. These five kinds of questions are covered in this post. By carefully using various kinds of questions, teachers may create a stimulating learning environment that encourages students’ intellectual development.

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Explore various kinds of evaluation in education management

The four types of evaluation support generic decision-making categories, following Stufflebeam’s idea.

Context Evaluation

A practical school administrator should prioritise understanding context evaluation over the other four categories of programme evaluation, even if they are all vital for managing information about educational programmes and services. Its importance often centres on three aspects that frequently influence whether decisions about educational curricula succeed or fail. Context assessment is useful for both short- and long-term planning decisions.

In many school systems, planning has evolved into an intellectual exchange between coworkers that reinforces positions taken by important decision-makers on a variety of topics. For a time, lack of expertise (maybe because of an excess of staff theorists), and dedication (fear of losing important decision makers), the planning process’s accommodations may be dismissed as administrative gimmicks that divert organisational resources from a school district’s day-to-day operations.

The second point is that context evaluation never stops or is extended for a service or project. The dynamic character of educational programmes makes them susceptible to modification, even after thorough and methodical design. The significance of the continuous nature of context evaluation might be downplayed if educational programmes were designed, produced, and implemented in a human-free environment.

Thirdly, context evaluation keeps on offering a baseline or reference point of data intended to look at the original goals and objectives of the plan. It permits close coordination between choices made following predetermined aims and objectives and the result of the project. At any point throughout a program’s lifespan, school administrators are free to review the original aims and objectives, overlay them with current events, and decide whether to continue, halt, or refocus the programme and its resources. The end effect is a reduction or avoidance of “after-the-fact” or “post-mortem” evaluations of educational programmes and services once they are finished.

Input Evaluation

The emphasis switches from planning decisions to resource allocation to meet the programme as one goes from context evaluation. A thorough assessment of this kind will yield valuable information on current initiatives and activities. It also offers a useful assessment of the effectiveness of the current programmes. There is a significant gap between what is and what is needed if, for instance, a school’s input analysis reveals a strong emphasis on highly intellectual, advanced instructional programmes while the context evaluation finds a strong need for fundamental skill emphasis. By focusing resources on areas with the most need, the building principal will be able to reduce inefficient usage and waste of limited resources with the use of this kind of input evaluation. It is suggested that resources be shifted and that their type and quantity be adjusted as a result of the input evaluation.

Process Evaluation

Process evaluation is the definition, collection, and reporting of data whenever project staff members need it, particularly in the beginning phases of a project. Process evaluation is required to give people in charge of carrying out plans and processes regular feedback once a course of action has been approved and implementation has started. The three primary goals of process evaluation are to (1) identify or anticipate flaws in the procedural design or its execution stage; (2) supply data for pre-programmed decisions; and (3) keep a log of the procedure while it is carried out.

Read: Need and Implications of Evaluation Process in Management

Process assessment involves several tactics, one of which is to continuously evaluate the project’s possible sources of failure, such as interpersonal interactions, communication channels, and resource sufficiency.

Projecting and servicing planned decisions that the project manager must make throughout project implementation, such as selecting selected schools to participate in the project specifically, is another tactic. Another tactic is to make a list of the key components of the project design, including the concept to be taught and the volume of discussion to be held, and then use this information to describe what happens. This allows for the assessment of whether or not goals were met. Occasionally, the process or design is not to blame for the failure to achieve a goal.

It’s critical to understand that the process evaluator(s) use both official and informal methods for gathering data. This covers a variety of tools and records, such as interaction analysis, open-ended response sheets, interviews, rating scales, diaries, and semantic differential instruments used in staff meetings, as well as programme evaluation and review technique (PERT) networks.

It’s also critical to understand that the effectiveness of the context and input evaluations determines the outcome of the process assessment. Process evaluation is less necessary the more appropriate the context and input evaluations are; on the other hand, the more inadequate the context and input evaluations are, the more demanding and important it is to conduct a thorough and adequate process evaluation.

Product Evaluation

Product evaluation is the fourth category of evaluation. Its goal is to assess and evaluate results after each programme cycle as well as whenever needed throughout the project’s duration. Product evaluation provides insight into what is, but policymakers frequently utilise product expectations to define the aims and objectives of certain programmes and initiatives. Context, input, and process evaluation become more tangible when a board of trustees or an education board establishes a product aim or expectation.

The evaluation used to refer solely to the assessment of the product; context, method, and other variables had to be incorporated to enable an evaluation process that acknowledged as many of the diverse components of the overall evaluation contents as feasible. Put another way, meeting product expectations requires the use, modification, and adjustment of context, input, and process as tools, while expectations for the product themselves are real policy issues.

A range of facts need to be taken into account when evaluating a product. The context input and process evaluations can provide significant decision data if the policy setters have realistically created the product expectation, even though the product evaluation outcomes are rather accurate and simple. Adjustments to input or modifications to the process can alter product evaluations.

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Need and Implications of Evaluation Process in Management

The day-to-day operations of the educational system sometimes disregard evaluation. One of the more crucial elements of the organization’s quality of effort may be the continuous assessment of its staff, programs, and activities.

Numerous factors, including state legislation, the state board of education regulations, municipal policy, graduation requirements, federal law, and student needs, all need programs to be implemented. Programming must be provided to the target audience once it has been produced for them in order to determine whether the planners’ goals were met. Teachers start programs all too frequently, and their success is left up to divine judgment.

Evaluation initiatives should be started and continued in order to support programs and budgets in this day of accountability, prudent use of limited resources, and growing competition for local and state tax dollars.

There is no doubt that a thorough review process is necessary, especially when one considers the implications of site-based management (SBM) and everything it involves. The assessment procedure ought to start now that the programs have been planned. As part of the assessment procedure, the following queries ought to be looked at:

1. Is the target population being served?

2. Is the program producing the desired results?

3. Is the programme cost-effective?

4. Is the program compatible with other programs?

5. Does the program support the mission of the school?

Read: An overview of the selection and arrangement of teaching method

The ability of the assessment process and design to function independently as a separate organizational function is necessary for the planning process’s viability and integrity. Evaluation should ideally be separate from all other school system functions, even if it is strongly related to and supportive of the planning process. This independence ensures that any project or activity will be evaluated based on its own merits and performance, in addition to allowing for more impartiality in the process.

The ideal way to carry out the evaluation role is to place it under the superintendent’s direction and keep it separate from all other school organization functions. The assessment process should ideally collect data and present it in a way that allows the decision-maker (principal, director, superintendent, board, etc.) to understand the information and determine what has to be done next.

The act of defining, gathering, and offering pertinent data to assess different options for decisions is called evaluation. To put it another way, evaluation is a method of producing facts from which choices may be made. At its most objective, it allows for the examination of different scenarios and facts, allowing the individual making the choice to reach the most desirable and fruitful conclusion.

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An overview of the selection and arrangement of teaching method

A teaching method is a series of sequential steps that an instructor uses to help students meet learning objectives. Put differently, a teaching method in the context of a classroom is a sequence of interconnected, progressive actions taken by both the instructor and the students to achieve the lesson’s overall and targeted goals.

Criteria for choosing a teaching method

The significance of selecting the appropriate teaching methodology is widely acknowledged. Various authors have proposed a number of criteria for this aim because there isn’t a quick and easy way to choose an instructional strategy.

Hudgins (1971) proposed the following characteristics as suitable: content, foundation commitments, students’ experiences, aims, goals, and objectives.

Brown (1992) promoted the use of pressure group criteria, technological criteria, psychological criteria, philosophical criteria, and practicality as selection factors for choosing a teaching technique.

Although these standards are valuable, some of them are not directly applicable to curricula at educational institutions. A specific teaching strategy must be related to the qualities of the students and the kind of learning it is meant to facilitate in order to be effective and suitable. The factors listed below should be taken into account while choosing a teaching strategy.

Read: Principles of curriculum organization in school education

1. The profile of learners

A teacher must consider the age of their students, their past knowledge, their preferred learning style, and their learning preferences, such as fast or slow learners, while selecting a teaching approach. A teacher will be forced to employ a method that makes the lesson or subject matter easier for the slow learners to understand if there are more slow learners in the class than fast learners.

2. Size of the class

The size of our courses and classes will vary, with some teaching sessions having extremely small to very large class sizes. It is evident that class size matters when choosing a technique because certain ones are inappropriate for groups that are too small or too big. A small group, for instance, might benefit from the discussion method, but not a group that is excessively big.

3. The learning objectives

Determining the right teaching approach requires careful consideration of the learning objectives, which act as the focal points of our instruction. We focus on knowledge, or the cognitive domain, in our classrooms, which is best served by projects, demonstrations, and other hands-on learning experiences; for practical skills, the lecture approach, brainstorming sessions, and discussions are more appropriate.

4. Local restrictions

Any local restrictions should be taken into account when choosing a method. The time allotted and the facilities—which include textbooks and resource materials—are the two most crucial variables. It goes without saying that a method cannot be employed if a necessary component is missing, such as a demonstration piece of equipment. In the same way, if there wasn’t enough time for a field trip, there would need to be another approach, like making a video recording.

5. Autonomy of students

The degree of student autonomy is becoming more and more important when choosing teaching techniques; however, this is more common in developed nations where students are typically more independent and have more options when it comes to how they do their university coursework. Perhaps this shouldn’t worry us too much in Africa right now, but it is something to think about if we want to become more learner-oriented in the future.

6. Likes and dislikes of the lecturers

This is brought up since there is proof that the preferences and experiences of lecturers influence the approach they choose. This is influenced by their ideology, style, and value system, in addition to their prior experiences and self-assurance in utilizing novel, frequently uncontrollable techniques. We won’t go into detail about this now; instead, we’ll just point out that lecturers need to be updated on new material on a regular basis and that teaching methods workshops are necessary.

7. Conducting the Examination

This restricts the approach that can be used to teach a subject as well. For instance, teachers constantly search for exam formats and design their lessons so that students can successfully complete exams of this nature. When it comes to purpose, we must understand how to set objectives in order to calculate the necessary learning level.

Read: An overview of the procedure of content selection in education

Learning objectives

Since learning objectives set the direction for our instruction, they must be specified in order to choose an effective teaching strategy. Everyone agrees that objectives must be stated, but there is considerably less consensus over the proper level of specificity. It needs to be noted that many of us often tend to select a higher level of objective than is really required.

Organization in teaching

Teaching can be a difficult job because educators are expected to perform a variety of tasks in modern society. Organizing oneself, one’s classroom, and one’s pupils is essential for success in the teaching profession. Before implementing an organizing system in their classrooms, educators should envision the outcomes they hope to achieve as they work to become better organizers. A few principles can be learned to aid.

Punctuality and learning

When a classroom is organized, pupils know what is expected of them, are in the right place at the right time, and the teacher is prepared with engaging lessons and evaluation tools. Students’ education suffers when there is no effective tardy policy in place, causing them to arrive late for class. Students who arrive late have an impact on not just the tardy student but also other students who have to wait for them or put up with a small disruption while they get inside the room.

Students acquire valuable life skills

Students must be taught the value of industry, tenacity, and correctness in their work, in addition to the necessity of being on time. They won’t be able to adjust to living in a community and working in the real world without these abilities. Students will benefit from a framework that educators and educational institutions provide that supports these behaviors.

Proper “housekeeping” maintains the learning focus

The classroom operates much more efficiently when simple rules are followed, such as when pencil sharpening is permitted or how students can use the restroom without interfering with class. This frees up more time for instruction and student learning. Instructors who do not have procedures in place for handling these and other housekeeping tasks squander valuable class time on unrelated issues that do not affect the learning and performance of their students. The teacher is free to genuinely instruct the students after organizational mechanisms are in place, understood, and followed by the students. The planned lesson plan may be the main emphasis of the day rather than a student’s permission to use the restroom right now.

Effective organization leads to fewer discipline issues

Students are provided with a lesson-centered framework for the start of the day when a teacher has a warm-up exercise written on the board as they arrive. Upon entering the classroom, students are expected to take their seats and get to work. Students have less free time to talk and possibly cause disruptions when there is a warm-up assignment available every day. Disruptions in the classroom can be reduced by implementing a late work policy. If a teacher does not have a procedure in place for assigning assignments to absent students, the teacher will have to waste valuable time at the start of class deciding what assignment to assign, which will leave the classroom unattended for a short while and invite disruptions even before the lesson starts.

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Principles of curriculum organization in school education

Ralph Tyler asserts that significant behavioral shifts in people don’t happen instantly. A learner’s education is not much impacted by a single encounter. Alterations in thought patterns, underlying routines, primary operational principles, dispositions, enduring interests, and similar aspects take time to manifest. We can only witness the main educational goals taking on definite, tangible form after months and years have passed. In certain ways, learning experiences have the same wear and tear on them as water dropping on a stone. There is no discernible change in the stone within a day, a week, or a month, but over years there is clear erosion.

The guidelines provided for choosing instructional materials can be somewhat altered to make them more appropriate for this purpose. These guidelines are helpful when thinking about organization as well. The curriculum’s layout, including its subdivisions, should be prepared and organized by the principles that have been proposed as the cornerstones of the school’s operations: the goal of education, the needs and capacities of the students, and the educational process. Regarding this, a few broad guidelines might be implemented to delineate the tasks that have to be carried out in the arrangement of the curriculum.

Read: An overview of the procedure of content selection in education

Principles of curriculum development include organizing, creating, and implementing curricula to meet learning objectives. Curriculum development models offer structures for organizing and creating curricula that consider many aspects such as student and school needs, societal and cultural influences, and the creation of instructional resources. Revisions or evaluations of current curricula to guarantee their efficacy may also be a part of curriculum development. The design principles of curriculum development seek to provide a structured course of study that equips students for life, but they are also shaped by the aspirations and anxieties of society, which results in the development of data-driven systems and the cultivation, comparison, and rating of students’ characteristics.

  • Offer a shared set of educational opportunities that are crucial for addressing unique needs and interests. Be appropriate for the way that learning occurs.
  • Ensure that the objectives are met and promote assessing students’ development and progress about these goals.
  • Take into account each student as an individual and include them in cooperative curriculum development and active learning activities.
  • Connect to the larger educational landscape in a way that positively influences the community’s and the school’s learning environment.

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An overview of the procedure of content selection in education

The procedure of content selection

Smith, Stanley, and Shores have thoroughly examined this topic. They state that the process for choosing content is as follows:

a) Judgmental

b) Experimental

c) Analytical and

d) Consensual

Judgmental procedures

The curriculum specialist must respond to the following inquiries to select the subject matter based on judgment:

I. What social and academic goals need to be approved?

II. What is the current situation in which these goals are seen as acceptable and desirable, and that calls for their realization?

III. Given the circumstances, what subject matter best meets these goals? To pick content with the greatest aims, this approach necessitates that the curriculum worker’s interests, knowledge, and principles transcend specific “social vision” and independence from the limiting impact of subjective thinking and personal views. The curriculum worker is not required to do original social and historical research while gathering data to aid in determining objectives or when he distributes this data to pick material using the judging approach. Scholarly works in the fields of cultural anthropology, sociology, economics, political science, history, psychology, and philosophy, among others, should provide him with the knowledge he needs.

Furthermore, the judging technique promotes lengthy group discussions and deliberations where broad viewpoints as well as individual and group perspectives are critically assessed and rebuilt to reach a consensus on societal principles and objectives. Curriculum materials that are based on justifications and biases will not meet the requirements of the judgmental process. Furthermore, the curriculum won’t be improved by the use of such material. When the social reconstruction criteria serve as the main foundation for choosing a topic matter, the judging method is most clearly displayed. According to this idea, the main criterion for choosing material is social progress.

Read: An overview of levels of content and their function in education

However, one should not believe that this is only a question of preference. Instead, the degree to which other people who share the same values, confront the same circumstances, and have the same social awareness would choose the same topic or concur with its choice serves as the standard for the judgment. Its successful implementation necessitates the use of critical, knowledgeable, and prudent curriculum formulators. When used by these individuals, it may be one of the most reliable techniques for choosing material. The curriculum worker, however, cannot ignore any of its stages without running the danger of making grave mistakes in judgment.

Experimental procedures

The experimental process of content selection looks for empirical evidence to ascertain whether or not the subject matter is attractive. Is the subject matter appropriate to be completed within guidelines and using methods that maximize the validity of the procedure? It is also possible to minimize mistakes brought on by outside factors, biases held by an individual or group, and poor judgment. The following is the format of the experimental content selection process:

I. Choosing a topic tentatively based on the inquiry.
II. Raising the possibility that the topic matter that was chosen informally satisfies the criteria’s requirements.
III. Specifying requirements for the appraisal or analysis.
IV. Analysing the data about the theory to determine whether the topic meets the need

Although this process hasn’t been applied widely yet, its results have typically proven reliable. It is, nevertheless, susceptible to criticism that not all parameters can be controlled and that its conclusions are not reliable. The experimental techniques’ assumption of a static curriculum in all areas of the one under study is another point of criticism. If this is not the case, the experimenter has no way of knowing if the conditions of the experiment or the control contributed to his results. Nonetheless, despite all of the criticism, this process is still one of the most widely used methods for choosing the subject.

Analytical procedure

The analytical process is among the most popular techniques for choosing content. It has characteristics similar to the utility criteria. Generally speaking, it is an examination of the actions people take to learn about the topic matter of these activities.
There are three types of analytical techniques, and the following is a quick summary of each:

• Activity analysis

Finding out the typical activities of a certain national group or geographic area is the aim of this investigation. Selecting appropriate activities for the curriculum is made easier with the aid of this analysis.

• Job analysis

The application of this study is to viewpoints related to careers. For instance, an examination of their work would serve as the foundation for teacher education programmers in determining what should be taught in the “professional preparation of Teachers” course.

• Knowledge analysis

Analyzing pertinent documentation sources from newspapers, journals, and libraries would be one step in the process if the goal is to determine which textual data pieces are often used. Studying the grammatical forms present in the correspondence of a certain group of individuals or people, in general, might help establish what should be included in a grammar lesson.

Consensual procedure

The consensual approach is a means of gathering perspectives about the curriculum’s appropriateness. The outcomes of the consensus process are stated as the proportion of individuals, or the number of individuals, within a community or group that think certain subjects need to be taught in schools. The first stage is to choose the people whose opinions need to be solicited. These individuals are typically chosen because they are:

a. Outstanding leaders from all works of life such as educators’ businessmen workers etc.

b. Experts and specialists such as physicians, engineers, teachers, and artists.

c. Representatives of the population of a community or region.

The creation of a procedure for gathering feedback is the following stage. Questionnaires are typically utilized. Interviews and conferences with small groups are used sometimes. The tabulation and analysis of the answers constitute the last phase of the consensual method. This process may be dependable if it is applied by the judging process. It is, however, also vulnerable to criticism that responses are too frequently influenced by personal interests, unconscious biases, and professional backgrounds. It is also clear that this process yields a vote tabulation rather than a consensus.

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An overview of levels of content and their function in education

The position of content in a brand hierarchy is referred to as a content level. Your primary brand experience is the foundation of the greatest levels. They are supported by lower levels in terms of function, branding, and strategy.
A content type can be a component of any content level and relates to the medium or format of the material itself. Though content levels are restricted to many tiers, the quantity of content categories available now certainly exceeds one hundred.

The three content levels:

The next stage is to strategically plan the kinds of content you will produce after you have decided on your themes. You can categorize your ideas into three levels while doing this: campaigns, projects, and updates.

Updates:

Updates are brief messages that are sent out regularly. It’s important to combine official content (business information, news, employment details, etc.) with informal content (employee updates, corporate culture information, etc.) for updates. These little “pinpricks” of information will alert staff members about goings-on within your business.

Read: Various evaluation models for curriculum development

Social media is the primary medium for sharing updates, which are effective in keeping your business at the forefront of your clients’ minds. A daily blog post, a Facebook update, or multiple tweets can all be considered updates. Regular updates are more likely to increase the size of your audience, so be sure the timetable you choose for content updates can be sustained over time.

Project outreach:

Projects are frequently designed around a specific topic and entail actions that will yield value over an extended period. A project could be anything from a Christmas-themed outreach (if that time of year works for your business) to the ongoing operations of a newly created department, statistics from a significant survey, or specifics about a significant customer event.

A project outreach cycle usually lasts a few weeks and addresses a single company goal; the kind of material you decide to produce will depend on this goal. You can create material for projects like PowerPoint presentations, webinars, and white papers, for instance.

Here, information is mostly disseminated through internet platforms, with the assistance of other media. For instance, a business may post several entries on its blog or share them with blogs in the same industry throughout the project weeks. Then, you may draw attention to these postings even more by sharing succinct, carefully crafted updates every day on your social media accounts.

Campaigns:

Projects and campaigns are comparable, however, campaigns have a shorter duration and more intensity. Campaign material serves to raise awareness of the brand or disseminates information about significant business announcements, like the introduction of a new product. A successful campaign will also start discussions about the company.

Read: The use of observation, interview, and content analysis in qualitative research

Offline media is frequently used to promote campaigns and can be utilized to drive short-term results (typically sales and reputation). Beyond only the media you use, though, you also need to make sure that the content you offer through offline channels is worthy of discussion. You ought to observe a significant increase in short-term reach through your campaign content. Keep in mind that campaigns need the most work out of the three content tiers and are therefore the most costly; utilize them carefully and at the appropriate point in your sales cycle.

The table of contents serves two purposes:

  • It gives users an overview of the document’s contents and organization.
  • It allows readers to go directly to a specific section of an online document.

The table of contents usually simply contains the most important elements of the document, but occasionally it could be helpful to have an enlarged table of contents that offers a more in-depth look at a complicated text.
The document’s sections may be spread across different Web pages or all on one page. Having a table of contents is very helpful when a document is broken up into several Web pages.

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Various evaluation models for curriculum development

A variety of models have been provided by evaluation specialists, and a review of these models might offer helpful context for the procedure described in this article.

Bradley’s Effectiveness Model

How can the efficacy of a planned curriculum be measured and appraised? Ten essential indications are provided in Bradley’s Curriculum Leadership and Development Handbook (1985) that can be used to assess a designed curriculum’s efficacy. Exhibit 12.1’s chart is intended to assist you in determining how you feel about the 10 indicators used to evaluate the efficacy of the curriculum in your district or school. In the supplied column, indicate whether or not your school or district meets each of the indicators by selecting Yes or No.

The functioning characteristics required by any complex organization to be accountable and responsive to its clients are reflected in the indicators for good curriculum creation. The measurement can also be tailored to any size school district, from large to small, and it can be used to assess a particular curriculum area, such reading, language arts, arithmetic, or any other selected content area. Bradley’s effectiveness model is somewhat supported by the models (included below): Tyler’s objectives-centered model; Stufflebeam’s context, input, process, and product model; Screven’s goal-free model; Stake’s responsive model; and Eisner’s connoisseurship model.

Read: The use of observation, interview, and content analysis in qualitative research

Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model

The curriculum evaluation approach presented by Ralph Tyler in his 1950 monograph Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction was among the first and is still used in many assessment initiatives. The Tyler technique, as outlined in this paper and applied in multiple extensive evaluation endeavors, proceeded logically and methodically through a number of connected steps:

1. Start with the previously established behavioral targets. These goals ought to outline the subject matter to be learned as well as the appropriate conduct from the students: “Show that you are knowledgeable about reliable resources for information on nutrition-related topics.”

2. Determine which circumstances will allow the learner to exhibit the behavior reflected in the goal and which will provoke or support this conduct. Therefore, find circumstances that cause oral language to be used if you want to evaluate oral language use.

3. Choose, alter, or create appropriate assessment tools, then ensure that they are valid, reliable, and impartial.

4. Use the instruments to obtain summarized or appraised results.

5. To determine the degree of change occurring, compare the data from various instruments before and after specified times.

6. Examine the outcomes to ascertain the curriculum’s advantages and disadvantages as well as potential causes for the specific pattern of strengths and weaknesses.

7. Utilize the findings to adjust the program as needed. (quoted on page 273 of Glatthorn, 1987).

The Tyler approach offers a number of benefits. It is not too difficult to comprehend and use. It makes sense and is organized. Instead of concentrating only on a student’s achievement, it draws attention to the strengths and shortcomings of the curriculum. It also highlights how crucial it is to have an ongoing cycle of evaluation, analysis, and development. Nevertheless, as Guba and Lincoln (1981) noted, it has a number of flaws.

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It makes no recommendations about how to assess the objectives themselves. It makes no recommendations about how standards should be created or give any standards. It appears to concentrate excessive focus on the pre- and post-assessments, completely ignoring the necessity for formative evaluation, and its concentration on the previous articulation of objectives may limit originality in curriculum building. Likewise, Baron and Boschee (1995) emphasize that “we are encountering fundamental changes in the way we view and conduct assessment in American schools” (p. 1) in their book Authentic Assessment: The Key to Unlocking Student Success.
Furthermore, “it has been sixty years since we underwent such a thorough and in-depth reevaluation of our assessment methods.”

Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process, Product Model

Several evaluation specialists criticized the Tyler model and proposed their own alternatives in the late 1960s and early 1970s as a result of the model’s evident flaws. The proposal made by a Phi Delta Kappa group led by Daniel Stufflebeam (1971) was the one that had the biggest impact. Because it placed a strong emphasis on gathering evaluative data for decision-making—the Phi Delta Kappa committee believed that decision-making was the only basis for evaluation—this model appeared to be appealing to educational leaders.

The Stufflebeam model meets the needs of decision makers by offering a way to generate data related to four stages of program operation: context evaluation, which helps decision makers set goals and objectives by continuously evaluating needs and problems in the context; input evaluation, which helps decision makers choose the best means of achieving those goals; process evaluation, which keeps an eye on the processes to make sure they are being carried out as intended and to make necessary modifications; and product evaluation, which compares actual ends with intended ends and makes decisions about recycling.

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During each of these four stages, specific steps are taken:

• The kinds of decisions are identified.

• The kinds of data needed to make those decisions are identified.

• Those data are collected.

• The criteria for determining quality are established.

• The data are analyzed on the basis of those criteria.

• The needed information is provided to decision makers. (as cited in Glatthorn, 1987, pp. 273–274)

There are a number of appealing aspects of the context, input, process, and product (CIPP) model that have made it popular among people who are interested in curriculum evaluation. Its focus on making decisions seems right for administrators who are trying to make curriculum better. Its attention on evaluation’s formative elements corrects a significant flaw in the Tyler model. Lastly, the committee’s comprehensive forms and guidelines offer users step-by-step instructions. There are, however, a number of significant shortcomings with the CIPP paradigm. Its primary flaw appears to be its inability to acknowledge the complexity of organizational decision-making processes. It overlooks the political aspects that heavily influence these choices and implies a level of rationality that is not present in these circumstances.

Scriven’s Goal-Free Model

The notion that goals or objectives are essential to the evaluation process was first questioned by Michael Scriven in 1972. He started to doubt the seemingly arbitrary distinction between planned and unintended outcomes after participating in multiple evaluation initiatives where the so-called side effects appeared to be more important than the initial goals. This discontent led him to develop his goal-free model. A goal-free evaluation involves the evaluator acting as an impartial observer who starts by creating a needs profile for the population that a particular program serves (although, Scriven is not quite clear on how this needs profile is to be produced). Subsequently, the evaluator evaluates the program’s real impact using mostly qualitative methods.

The primary contribution of Scriven was, of course, to draw administrators’ and evaluators’ attention to the significance of unanticipated impacts; this is an important lesson in education, it seems. It is impossible to declare a mathematics program fully successful if its goal of enhancing computational skills is met but the unexpected consequence is a decline in student interest in the subject. Additionally, Scriven’s focus on qualitative approaches seems to have been timely given the growing discontent in the research community with the predominance of quantitative methodology. However, as Scriven points out, goal-free evaluation need to be utilized in addition to goal-based assessments, not in place of them. It cannot give the decision-maker enough information when used alone.

The goal-free model has been criticized by some for not giving more clear instructions for creating and applying it; as a result, specialists who do not need clear help in determining needs and effects are likely the only ones who can utilize it.

Stake’s Responsive Model

The development of the responsive model by Robert Stake (1975) significantly advanced curriculum evaluation because it explicitly relies on the premise that stakeholders’ concerns—those for whom the evaluation is conducted—should be given top priority when identifying the evaluation’s issues. He put his argument in this way:

I suggest using the responsive evaluation approach to highlight evaluation issues that are significant for each unique program. It’s a method that increases the utility of the findings for those in and around the program by trading off some measurement precision. If an educational assessment reacts to the information needs of the audience, orients itself more toward program activities than program intents, and mentions the various value perspectives in the program’s success and failure, then it is considered responsive.

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Stake recommends an interactive and recursive evaluation process that embodies these steps:

• The evaluator meets with clients, staff, and audiences to gain a sense of their perspectives on and intentions regarding the evaluation.

• The evaluator draws on such discussions and the analysis of any documents to determine the scope of the evaluation project.

• The evaluator observes the program closely to get a sense of its operation and to note any unintended deviations from announced intents.

• The evaluator discovers the stated and real purposes of the project and the concerns that various audiences have about it and the evaluation.

• The evaluator identifies the issues and problems with which the evaluation should be concerned. For each issue and problem, the evaluator develops an evaluation design, specifying the kinds of data needed.

• The evaluator selects the means needed to acquire the data desired. Most often, the means will be human observers or judges.

• The evaluator implements the data-collection procedures.

• The evaluator organizes the information into themes and prepares “portrayals” that communicate in natural ways the thematic reports. The portrayals may involve videotapes, artifacts, case studies, or other “faithful representations.”

• By again being sensitive to the concerns of the stakeholders, the evaluator decides which audiences require which reports and chooses formats most appropriate for given audiences. (as cited by Glatthorn, 1987, pp. 275–276)

The responsive model’s primary benefit is undoubtedly its client-sensitivity. If applied properly, the methodology should produce assessments that are highly valuable to clients by acknowledging their concerns, being mindful of their values, incorporating them closely throughout the evaluation, and customizing the report format to suit their requirements. Another benefit of the responsive approach is its flexibility. After identifying the client’s concerns, the evaluator can select from a number of different methodologies. Its primary flaw appears to be its vulnerability to manipulation by clients, who, in venting their worries, may try to deflect attention from vulnerabilities they would prefer not to be made public.

Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model

Elliot Eisner (1979) developed the “connoisseurship” paradigm, an evaluation method that prioritizes qualitative appreciation, drawing on his experience in aesthetics and art education. Connoisseurship and critique are the two fundamental concepts on which the Eisner model is based. According to Eisner, connoisseurship is the art of appreciation; it involves identifying and valuing through perceptual memory and drawing on experience to recognize and value what is meaningful. It is the capacity to both recognize the specifics of the educational experience and comprehend how those specifics fit into the overall design of the classroom. According to Eisner, criticism is the art of revealing attributes of a thing that expertise notices. The educational critic is more likely to employ metaphorical, connotative, and symbolic language in such a disclosure, which Eisner refers to as “nondiscursive.”

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According to Eisner’s definition, there are three parts to educational critique. The descriptive part of the essay aims to describe and illustrate the salient features of school life, such as its norms, patterns, and fundamental structure. In order to investigate meanings and generate other theories—that is, to explain social phenomena—the interpretative component draws on concepts from the social sciences. The evaluative component performs assessments to enhance the educational procedures and offers justification for the decisions taken regarding values so that others may be more likely to disagree.

The main contribution of the Eisner model is its significant departure from the conventional scientific models and its delivery of an alternative conception of evaluation. By drawing on a rich heritage of artistic critique, the evaluator’s viewpoint is expanded and his or her toolkit is enhanced. Its detractors have criticized it for lacking methodological rigor, a claim Eisner has made an effort to deny. Furthermore, detractors have pointed out that applying the concept necessitates a high level of skill due to the phrase “connoisseurship,” which seems to imply elitism.

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The primary goals of curriculum evaluation

Objectives of curriculum evaluation

The curriculum is one of the most important components of a good education. Curriculum evaluation include subject material and lessons, along with its objectives for implementation, lesson structure, and assessments. Teachers make use of the curriculum to make sure every student reaches the required criteria. In order to make sure that students are learning all content in the most effective way possible, curriculums must be reviewed. Formative, summative, and diagnostic are the three forms of curriculum evaluations.

• Formative Evaluation

This occurs during curriculum creation and allows developers to correct flaws.

• Summative Evaluation

This is the evaluation of the final curriculum after it has been fully developed.

• Diagnostic Evaluation

This involves determining the cause of a deficit after using the curriculum.

The purpose of curriculum evaluation is to review teaching and learning procedures in the classroom and assess how the implemented curriculum affects student (learning) achievement, allowing for any necessary revisions to the official curriculum.
Curriculum evaluation is a crucial step in adopting and implementing any new curriculum in an educational setting because it aims to ascertain whether the recently adopted curriculum is accomplishing the desired outcomes and goals that it has set forth.

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This more expansive viewpoint necessitates a less restrictive understanding of the goals and focal points of curriculum review. Two ideas are particularly helpful in examining the literature and gaining a more comprehensive understanding of purpose: merit and worth. According to their usage of the phrase, merit describes an entity’s intrinsic value, which is implicit, innate, and unaffected by applications.

Merit is determined independently of context. Conversely, worth refers to an entity’s value in relation to a given application or context. It is the “payoff” value for a certain organization or population. Therefore, experts may believe that a certain English course has a lot of value: It might include content that specialists think desirable, be based on up-to-date research, and represent sound theory. However, a teacher in an urban school teaching uninterested working-class children may find little value in the same course: It can call for learning materials that the students are unable to read and teaching techniques that the instructor is not proficient in.

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The curriculum for higher secondary schools in Pakistan as per the standards for curriculum structure

Curriculum Development Model

Ralph W. Tyler’s impact was particularly noticeable in the areas of curriculum and testing, where he developed a justification for curriculum planning within the context of educational policy and expanded the concept of measurement into a more expansive conception known as evaluation.

Tyler began his teaching career in South Dakota as a science teacher before attending the University of Chicago to work for a doctorate in educational psychology. His study at Chicago under Charles Judd and W.W. Charters led to a focus on teaching and testing in his studies. After earning his degree in 1927, Tyler accepted a position at the University of North Carolina, where he collaborated with state educators to enhance curricula. Tyler accompanied W. W. Charters to Ohio State University (OSU) in 1929.

In 1953, Tyler became the first director of the Stanford, California-based Centre for Advanced Study in the Behavioural Sciences, a position he held until his retirement in 1966. Since the release of Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, Tyler has gained more recognition as an authority on education. Tyler earned the title of “father of behavioral objectives” due to his emphasis on tying goals to experience (teaching) and assessment. Ralph W. Tyler, who is frequently referred to as the “grandfather of curriculum design,” was greatly impacted by the Progressive Education movement of the 1920s, John Dewey, and Edward Thorndike. Thorndike shifted the focus of curriculum inquiry from the relative merits of many topics to actual studies of modern society.Dewey advocated for the inclusion of students’ interests in the creation of learning objectives and activities. Tyler focused on the student’s ideas, sentiments, and emotions in addition to their intelligence.

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The curriculum rationale

A course syllabus utilized by generations of college students as a foundational reference for curriculum and instruction creation, Ralph Tyler’s Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction is one of his most valuable contributions.
In four 1949 questions, Tyler outlined the foundation for his program. In order to design a curriculum plan of instruction, Tyler explained his reasoning for the curriculum in terms of four questions that he said needed to be addressed.

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that will likely attain these purposes?

3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?

4. How can we determine whether the purposes are being attained?

A four-step approach that includes defining objectives, choosing learning experiences, arranging learning experiences, and assessing the curriculum can be developed from these questions. These processes are essentially explained in the Tyler reasoning.
Additionally, the reasoning emphasized a significant group of variables to be evaluated in relation to the inquiries. According to Tyler, the curriculum’s framework must also take into account three key components that together constitute the essential components of an educational experience:

(1) the nature of the learner (developmental factors, learner interests and needs, life experiences, etc.);

(2) the values and aims of society (democratizing principles, values and attitudes); and

(3) knowledge of subject matter (what is believed to be worthy and usable knowledge).

Curriculum designers have to filter their decisions through the three elements when responding to the four questions and creating the educational experience for kids.

This logic illustrates the enigmatic difference between grasping the underlying unifying concepts of the knowledge and memorizing its discrete parts. Tyler argued that this is the method by which meaningful education takes place, but he added a disclaimer that one should not mistake “knowing facts” for “being educated.” In fact, learning is more than just hearing about things; it also entails seeing examples of what may be accomplished with them. Tyler seems to be saying that a person who is properly educated has not only learned specific facts but has also changed the way they behave. (As a result, a lot of educators associate him with the idea of behavioral targets.) The knowledgeable individual can handle a variety of circumstances thanks to these behavioral patterns, not just the ones in which the learning occurred.

Tyler’s reasoning has drawn flak for being blatantly hierarchical and linear in how it relates to the curriculum in schools. It has been criticized for being out of date and theoretical, fit only for administrators who are determined to control the curriculum in ways that don’t take into account the needs of instructors and students. The most well-known critique of the reasoning argues that it has historically been linked to traditions of social efficiency.

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Tylor’s Curriculum Development Model

Ralph W. Tyler: Model of Behavior is arguably the most often cited theoretical formulation in the topic of curriculum.The Tyler model is deductive; it starts with the general and moves toward the particular, such as defining educational objectives, by looking at societal demands. In addition, the model follows a predetermined path from start to finish; it is linear. However, linear models don’t have to be unchangeable step sequences. Regarding the sites of entrance and connections between model components, curriculum designers are free to use their discretion. Furthermore, the model is prescriptive; it makes recommendations for what should be done and what many curriculum developers really do.

Additionally, it is more “society-centered” than the social reconstruction curriculum. This approach presented the curriculum in schools as a means of enhancing communal life. As a result, the primary curriculum’s source is the demands and issues surrounding social issues. According to Tyler (1990), there are three types of resources that can be used to define the goal of education: people (children as students), modern life, and professional evaluation of the subject of study.

This methodology for developing curriculum focuses more on how to create a curriculum that aligns with the objectives and mission of a learning institution. According to Taylor (1990), when developing a curriculum, four basic factors are taken into account: the learning objectives to be met, the learning experience itself, the organization of the learning experiences, and the evaluation.

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