Tag: Observations

The use of observation, interview, and content analysis in qualitative research

Observation in qualitative research

Direct observation may be a valuable tool for collecting data in qualitative research. You can get certain kinds of information best by looking them over directly. For instance, the materials used in construction, the number of rooms used for different purposes, the size of the rooms, the quantity of furniture and equipment, the presence or absence of certain amenities, and other pertinent details are some features of a school structure. By contrasting these facilities with realistic benchmarks that have already been established by expert opinion and investigation, their sufficiency may be ascertained. However, data collection by observation becomes considerably more complicated when studying human subjects in activity is involved. You need to know “what to look for” and “how to look for” in this situation. You have to be able to tell the difference between elements of the case that are important and those that are not at all relevant to the inquiry. This necessitates identifying the circumstances in which observational methods are effective.

The obvious conduct of people in everyday situations is the focus of observation. The overt behavior of individuals in everyday situations is a significant area of study in human observation. Under the artificially created conditions of a laboratory, it is not profitable to observe many significant features of human behavior. Descriptive research methods aim to characterize behavior in its natural environment. Observation as a research method has to be methodical, narrowly focused, well documented, and guided by a clear goal. It needs to go through the standard processes of validity, reliability, and accuracy tests like any other research technique. The observer has to be aware of exactly what to watch out for and notice.

Observations may be direct or indirect, scheduled or unscheduled, and known or unknown. A more normal view of activity may be observed from unknown, unscheduled, indirect observations such as through a one-way-vision glass. People are known to have committed minor crimes to get a true picture of prison conditions.

Read: Research proposal and its different components. A guide to writing the research report

When presented with different options or circumstances, observational research enables the researcher to see what their subjects do.
Studying non-experimental scenarios where behavior is noted and observed falls under this umbrella phrase. The phrase “what’s going on or what’s she doing” might also be used. Since the variables in the study are not controlled or altered, it is categorized as non-experimental.

Interviews in qualitative research

One excellent method for conducting research is interviewing people. Compared to other research methodologies, they let you collect richer data and make more thorough findings by accounting for emotional responses, spontaneous reactions, and nonverbal indicators. Individuals are more likely to divulge information orally than in paper, therefore information will be provided more freely and completely during an interview than it would be on a questionnaire. There are indeed several benefits to the cordial exchange during an interview that come with restricted, faceless questionnaire interactions.

Probably the oldest and most common method the man uses to get knowledge is the interview. Face-to-face interactions take place as the interviewer poses questions to the responder, also known as the interviewee, with the goal of eliciting information relevant to the study’s concerns.

In-person interviews allow you, the interviewer, to continuously support and guide the interviewees as they delve further into a topic. You can learn things from an interviewee that can’t be expressed in written responses, such as accidental remarks, body language, and tone of voice. The visual and aural cues also assist you in maintaining the private conversation’s speed and tone to extract private and sensitive information and learn about the subjects’ motives, emotions, attitudes, and beliefs.

Interviews differ in their nature, goal, and extent. They might be carried out for advice or study. You can limit them to one person or give them to several individuals. There are, in essence, three primary uses for interviews.
a. It may be applied as an exploratory tool to help find variables and relationships, provide recommendations for hypotheses, and direct the next research stages.
b. It is capable of being employed as a research tool. In this instance, the research will include questions intended to gauge its variables. Consequently, rather than being merely information-gathering tools, these questions are regarded as items in a psychometric instrument.

Content analysis in qualitative research

It may be used to enhance other research methods in a study by tracking down unexpected outcomes, verifying other approaches, and delving more into respondents’ motivations and the reasons behind their responses. Qualitative data often comprises rich, subjective information that is expressed verbally and includes detailed details. Reading a lot of transcripts in search of patterns or distinctions, then identifying themes, and creating categories are all necessary steps in the analysis of qualitative data. To categorize data, researchers have traditionally used colored pens and “cut and paste.” These days, the procedure is comparatively simpler because of the usage of software made expressly for managing qualitative data, which significantly lowers technical complexity and makes the tedious work easier. Numerous computer software programs have been created to automate the process of “coding” and to search and retrieve data. This essay provides examples of how to apply them in the process of analyzing qualitative data. The following describes the fundamental characteristics and main instruments that help qualitative researchers organize and examine their data.

Qualitative data analysis requires a 5-step process:

Prepare and organize your data.

Collect your notes, papers, and other materials, and print off your transcripts. Include any demographic data you may have gathered, the source, and any other information that can aid in the analysis of your data.

Review and explore the data.

To gain an understanding of the contents of your data, you will need to read it through, most likely more than once. You might wish to jot down any questions you have or any thoughts or suggestions you have.

Create initial codes.

Make use of idea maps, sticky notes, highlighters, and other tools that will help you make a connection between your facts and yourself. Please refer to the accompanying paper, which shows how to highlight important words and phrases and annotate the margins to organize the data.

Review those codes and revise or combine them into themes.

Identify recurring themes, language, opinions, and beliefs.

Present themes in a cohesive manner.

Think about your target audience, the goal of the research, and the information that will best help your data tell its narrative.

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Research proposal and its different components. A guide to writing the research report

It is conventional for students doing research for a degree to first submit an overview or research proposal to the faculty for approval. The research adviser evaluates the value of the proposed study and talks with the student about the appropriateness of the chosen topic and the suggested study design. The faculty’s review aids in elucidating the students’ thoughts regarding the appropriateness of the problem chosen and the suggested technique. Additionally, the student saves a significant amount of time and effort by not having to spend it on a poorly constructed study that would have been rejected.

Though there is some variation in the format prescribed by different universities, the following information is most often required about the research proposal:

• Statement of the problem.
• Purpose, objective, and significance of the study.
• Definitions, assumptions, and limitations.
• Review of related literature.
• Theoretical framework.
• Hypotheses and questions.
• Proposed research procedures.
• Time schedule.

The aforementioned topics will be covered in detail in the upcoming parts, giving you the confidence to create a research proposal.

As you may remember, research is done when the intended goal appears to be tough to achieve. Research in this area is required as the existing testing method is only recognized for promoting memorization and does not assist in identifying potential. Conversely, because the family planning program is not assisting in slowing down the pace of population increase, a study on family planning practices and current attitudes towards different family planning devices must be done. The application of research to real-world issues is what makes it so valuable. Research should be appropriately conveyed to field people for it to be useful.

Read: Analysis of reforms in Pakistani secondary education curriculum: research proposal

The basic purpose of the research report is to communicate to others in the field, complete and accurate information about what was done, how it was done, and what results were obtained.

How to Write the Research Report: A Guide

The writing of the research report should be undertaken after all the data have been collected and analyzed, and the conclusions based on these data have been drawn and firmly established. The researcher should follow the outline that he submitted for the approval of his adviser/thesis committee. However, the preliminary research outline should only serve as a guide. Sometimes changes are introduced in the course of conducting a research study because the preliminary tryout may indicate that certain methods should be abandoned and new ones introduced. The research report should reflect what was done. The research report should describe as clearly, directly, and briefly as possible exactly how the research was conducted, how the data were collected, and how the conclusions were drawn.

Clarity is the best quality of a study report. Experience has proven that removing any superfluous, pointless, and unnecessary information from the report may help it become more clear. The writer should not disrespect the intellect of the people for whom the research reports are made or waste his time, since they are all familiar with the fundamentals of the subject and have a basic understanding of the background information. If the writer feels that a certain amount of basic background information is necessary, he should only mention it very briefly.

There should be thorough documentation in the research report. This implies that every assertion should have its source cited. Please note that the following claims do not require supporting documentation.
• claims that are regarded as fundamental presumptions, such as the following: using audio-visual aids enhances teaching-learning environments, production is required for the development of human resources, and education investments provide greater rates of return.
• statements based on firsthand observation, such as the inability of primary school pupils to remain still for extended periods, the reluctance of women to discuss their age relative to that of males, the tendency of eastern mothers to be overly protective of their children, etc.

Standard Format of the Research Report

There are several excellent and appropriate methods to deliver a research report in writing; there is no one right approach. However, some types of information must always be provided. Because of this, the reports’ formats are essentially the same.
The fresh information collected from the research investigation forms the fundamental basis of the research report. However, the research report has to make it very apparent what the issue was and how it was investigated to demonstrate that this new information is pertinent and useful. Therefore, there are three main sections in every study report, which are as follows:

1) The introductory explanation

2) The presentation of the data collected and its analysis

3) A summary of the general conclusions.

Documentation may be included in the text itself or the form of footnotes. Regardless of the format, the source from which the statement was derived as well as the author to whom credit is due must be mentioned. If the assertion came from a written, published source, it should be stated with the publication’s title, publisher’s name, and year of release. Documentation should be used to provide credit to the expert who provided the view.

Read: The significance of samples in research. Discuss various sampling techniques

Nature and Background of the Study

A research report should begin with an introduction that covers the purpose and context of the study as well as setting the scene for the main body of work. The study’s justification is given in this section. The primary subjects that need to be covered in this section are.

A. Statement of the problem:

The problem statement should be concise and direct. Just describe the study’s purpose and topic matter at this point. No rationale for doing the study has to be given. Giving a clear image of the study’s topic and the framework it will be done inside should be the goal.

B. Reasons for doing the research:

Here, the researcher has to explain why the study was carried out. A reader should be able to comprehend the challenges and barriers encountered in the field that made the study necessary after reading this subsection.

C. Review of related literature:

The researcher should acknowledge what was already understood about the issue before beginning his investigation. Any gaps in prior information may be highlighted, and shortcomings in the approaches used by earlier researchers may be identified. In a sense, the evaluation of relevant literature would provide his findings even more support. It is not necessary to attempt to present a review of every piece of literature that is currently accessible on the subject. Reviewing previous research should only include information that is pertinent to the components of the issue that the study addresses.

D. Further elaboration of the problem:

This subsection addresses topics such as problem delimitation, subproblems, hypotheses taken into consideration during research project development, etc.

F. General hypothesis:

At this point, the researcher ought to outline the hypothesis he intends to investigate. As such, the introductory chapter needs to set the reader up for the primary study and its conclusions. As previously said, if a chapter gets too long, it could be divided into two or more chapters. The division of the chapter is what explains the surface variations across various report formats.

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Approach to Data Analysis and Presentation

This section of the research report constitutes the essential core. It is here that actual research is described in de’tails4nd the basic data collected are presented.

A. Actual steps followed in the course of the research:

If feasible, the researcher should provide enough data about his process so that other researchers might recreate the work if they so want.

B. Tools employed in data collection:

Every tool used in the research for collecting data—tests, surveys, forms, etc.—should be explained. The Appendix after the text should provide an example of each of these instruments. It should also be made clear why each of these tools was utilized and what stage of the study it was used for:

C. Validity and reliability of instruments:

The validity and reliability of the instruments employed determine the level of trust that can be put in the study findings. The researcher must furnish sufficient details on the validity and reliability of the instruments employed. If instrument pit testing was done, specifics about the findings must be provided.

D. Population and sample studied:

Information should be provided about the population studied and how the sample was drawn – characteristics of the sample – should be provided.

E. Summarizing the collected evidence:

Here, the researcher should provide the information obtained through charts, graphs, tables, and other visual aids. Analysis and interpretation of the data are necessary. Tables that summarise the essential facts for understanding the interpretation should be included in the text, whereas comprehensive tables go in the appendix. The data presentation ought to be organized by the subproblems and sub-hypotheses.

F. Summary of the findings

For the convenience of the reader, a summary of data and their interpretation should be presented towards the end of this chapter and point out what has been revealed by the data.

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The significance of samples in research. Discuss various sampling techniques

The quest for universally applicable principles is the main goal of research. The majority of studies apply treatments to a limited subset of the population and gather data for analysis and conclusion-making. There are several pragmatic reasons for doing this. Certain populations can be so big that it would be prohibitively costly and time-consuming to quantify their features. When dealing with extremely huge populations—such as all Pakistani primary school students or all automobiles registered in the nation—the process of gathering data may take so long that, by the time the researcher finishes his investigation, the population may have changed. If such were the case, the findings from the research would not apply to the altered population, whose makeup may have been impacted by a higher percentage of new enrollees and a smaller percentage of repeaters and dropouts.

In certain situations, it might seem possible to gather information by conducting an exhaustive census of the entire population, but in the majority of other cases, sampling would allow one to draw reliable conclusions or generalizations from the data gathered from a small percentage of the population. The sample size’s sufficiency determines how accurately we can make these Quake generalizations or inferences. The researcher is not the only one who uses sampling extensively. Everybody uses sampling in their daily lives. We remove one or two peanuts from the seller, remove the shell to check whether the nuts seem healthy, and then taste the peanuts to determine if they have been cooked to our satisfaction. We depart if the quality of the contents of these sampled peanuts does not meet our standards.

Likewise, our perceptions of organizations and people are frequently shaped by snippets of our interactions with them. We might not always make purposeful attempts to get high-quality samples, thus the conclusions we make in daily life based on samples may not always be accurate. Conversely, the researcher uses the following sampling strategies to create samples:

• randomly selected;
• representative;
• sufficiently large; and
• controlled for extraneous variables.

Read: Classification of tests: the validity and reliability of tests as research tools

Type of Samples

Non-probability and probability are the two fundamental categories of samples. What separates the two is primarily that in the former case, it is impossible to calculate the likelihood that every person has an equal chance of joining the sample. To clarify the distinction, consider the example that follows. Let’s say a researcher visits elementary school principals to gather information from those that allow the headmasters to provide their pupils for study purposes. He visits many schools, gathering information until he reaches his 250-point goal. This one is an illustration of a non-probability sample. In contrast, g gathers a comprehensive list of all class V students enrolled in schools, writes each student’s name on a separate slip, places all the slips in a drum or container, and then draws 250 slips, one at a time, after repeatedly rotating or shaking the container. This allows him to create a probability sample. Because each student has an equal chance of being included in the sample, this is known as a probability sample.

Non-probability sampling

The majority of social science research uses non-probability-type samples. Subjects are typically used when they are easily accessible to the researcher. For instance, a researcher may enroll in two distinct courses if they are interested in comparing two distinct pedagogical approaches. We refer to these samples as inadvertent or accidental samples. Entering a sizable department shop, an investigator may sample the prices of necessities by taking note of the costs of every item on offer. Incidental or inadvertent samples are used by a drug examiner who is gathering samples of medications accessible in a large pharmacy.

Quotation sampling is another kind of non-probability sampling. Using this procedure, the proportions of the population’s different subgroups are first discovered, and the sample is then selected to have the same percentages (typically not in a random manner). For instance, a researcher examining the mathematical prowess of high school students includes both males and females in the fraction of students known to be enrolled in high schools. Comparably, a researcher may take into account the proportion of urban and rural instructors in the population when examining the attitudes of high school teachers about the removal of the ban on student unions.

Purposive sampling is the third kind of non-probability sampling in research. A sample that is purposefully chosen is chosen at random because there is strong evidence supporting its high level of population representation. Given that the candidate with the highest number of votes in the Islamabad Capital Territory’s rural regions has historically won the National Assembly seat, anybody attempting to forecast the outcome of the next election from this constituency may choose to sample solely the voters’ preferences in this area. Alternatively, if one is aware that the Faisalabad wholesale market has historically mirrored national trends, one may use the trend in cotton prices there alone to forecast the trend in cotton prices for all other markets in the nation.

Probability sampling

A planned and systematic process of selecting samples from the population so that every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample is known as probability sampling. For instance, if a sample of two students is to be taken from a class of ten students (S1. S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9, S10), one can create five pairs of students so that each student appears only once in a pair. Five pairs can be combined in a wide variety of ways, and any pair can be chosen.

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Classification of tests: the validity and reliability of tests as research tools

According to Carrington (1994), a test is a sample of responses, conduct, goods, or performances from a certain domain.
Similar to scales and inventories, tests are tools for evaluation (The New Standards for Psychological and Educational Testing, published in 1999).
A device used to collect a sample of a person’s behaviors. (Yun and Allen, 1979).
Test scores will forecast performance levels; when needed, the student will figure out how to put the pieces back together in relevant contexts. Cann, 2000).

Classification of tests:

These evaluation tools have been divided into several categories. You may classify people into the following two broad categories as a fundamental starting point:

a. What the person can accomplish (his talents); and

b. What the person will do (his distinctive behavior revealing his personality).

A few descriptive categories based on the instrument’s purpose or function are listed below.

a. Achievement tests:

Achievement tests, often referred to as proficiency exams, provide information on an individual’s knowledge base, level of accomplishment, and ability to solve issues and do tasks. These exams are designed to gauge a person’s current performance level and level of mastery in a subject or skill as a result of receiving training. These assessments gauge aptitude in a particular subject, such as maths, reading, spelling, or typing. Performance is measured in several areas by certain accomplishment batteries.

Achievement tests can be used, among other things, to determine a person’s strengths and weaknesses and to assess the impact of a course of study, teachers, and other educational resources. These tests can also be used to compare two teaching methods, courses of study, textbooks, etc., and to determine which groups are equivalent to serve as control and experimental groups. They can also be used to measure the progress made by the experimental and control groups by administering the test before and after the treatment.

b. Aptitude tests:

The purpose of aptitude tests is to evaluate an individual’s potential for success in a given academic or professional domain. Put differently, aptitude exams aim to forecast a person’s potential for achieving higher performance with further instruction. It was precisely because accomplishment tests were determined to be reliable indicators of academic performance that the earlier academic aptitude tests were developed. To determine a person’s potential for future growth given the required training, aptitude tests examine an individual’s current performance, including performance in certain areas where they have not received particular instruction. The mechanical, motor coordination, artistic, and aptitude for medicine, engineering, computers, languages, stenography, and other fields may all be measured with aptitude tests.

Scores on various talents are obtained via aptitude tests. These assessments give a thorough picture of a person’s general strengths and limitations or ability profile. After receiving the required training, this profile may be compared against the profiles of people who have succeeded in a variety of occupations to identify the field or fields in which he has the highest chance of success.

c. Personality tests:

A vast subset of psychological testing focuses on the non-cognitive facets of human activity. Most frequently, personality tests are used to examine these kinds of traits and viewpoints. The majority of these assessments are typically self-reporting tools. The person examines his answers to specific questions on his behavior patterns and preferred course of action in various scenarios. These instruments could not be very useful since it is hard, impossible, or unfeasible for people to precisely or impartially describe their own emotions. Two major categories may be used to group personality assessments.

i) Personality questionnaires:

In recent years self-report instruments have come to be used for personality assessment. One of the methods used in the construction of personality questionnaires is to make up a very large number of questions and then to determine by experimental studies which items discriminate between normal persons and groups of individuals known to deviate from the normal.

ii) Projective technique

In recent years, psychologists have focused a lot of emphasis on a novel method of personality assessment. The reason the new techniques are dubbed “projective” is that they allow subjects to project their traits onto how they would react to an ambiguous, hazy scenario. This method is predicated on the idea that, when a person is liberated from societal norms, he is more likely to be authentic and see the world in his unique light. The circumstances are deliberately left open-ended so that he is less able to falsify his sincere answers to appear favorable.

Read: Observation types and record-keeping methods

Reliability

If the same result is obtained from a test several times, it is considered reliable. The consistency of the respondents’ scores on subsequent tests is referred to as the test’s reliability. A test’s reliability may be assessed in three different ways.

(1) A large number of people may take a test, have it retaken, and then calculate the coefficient of correlation between the test and retest results.

(2) A large-scale test with many items may be given only once, but each participant may receive two scores—one for even-numbered things and another for odd-numbered items.

The reliability of the test might be determined by calculating the coefficient of correlation between these two scores. The test may be developed in many formats since prior familiarity with one form may render a retake unfair. To determine the reliability coefficient, subject scores on the two forms may be connected.

Validity

The validity of a test is determined by how well it truly measures the objectives it was designed to evaluate. There must be an independent standard for the characteristic being tested to establish test validity. For instance, the results of pupils’ most recent school exams in English might serve as criteria for certifying an English proficiency test. The results of a student’s first exam after starting college, which is a scholastic aptitude test, might also be utilized as the standard. Test validity is the degree of connection that exists between test results and criteria scores. In conclusion, the user should confirm for themselves before utilizing a test that:

The test is valid and sufficiently trustworthy, it has been standardized on a subject group similar to the one he intends to employ, it has been created to assess what he wants to measure, and it has high validity.

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Observation types and record-keeping methods

Observation as a research method has to be methodical, narrowly focused and well-documented with a clear goal in mind. It needs to go through the standard processes of validity, reliability, and accuracy tests like any other research technique. The observer has to be aware of exactly what to watch out for and notice. The validity and reliability of observations are enhanced when the same observer makes them frequently.

Observations may be direct or indirect, scheduled or unscheduled, and known or unknown. A more normal view of activity may be observed from unknown, unscheduled, indirect observations such as through a one-way-vision glass. People are known to have committed minor crimes to get a true picture of prison conditions.

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Methods of Recording Observations

Several tools have become widely employed to help in the recording of data gathered through observation. These tools aid in the researcher’s ability to concentrate on certain occurrences, make precise and impartial observations, and organize the data-gathering process.

a. Check-list:

Comprising a pre-made list of objects, the checklist is the most basic gadget. You can select “Yes” or “No” to indicate if the items are there, or you can enter the relevant phrase or number to indicate the kind and quantity of things. Observation recording is made easier and more systematic using this straightforward “laundry list” kind of gadget, which also ensures that significant details about the item or behavior being observed are taken into account.

b. Rating scale:

A rating scale is used for qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a thing or traits of a person. In this device, the aspects of the thing or the traits of a person are rated on a five or seven-point scale from the highest to the lowest.

c. Scorecard:

The scorecard, which shares some similarities with the rating scale and cheek list, often allows for the evaluation of a sizable number of factors. Furthermore, each feature or element has a preset point value associated with its existence or rating. As a result, a total weighted score based on the scorecard rating may be obtained and applied to the object’s evaluation. Score ratings are widely employed in assessments of schools, communities, construction projects, and textbooks. It is occasionally employed in the process of determining a school’s overall rating.

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